The medieval period saw the emergence of several regional languages and the associated literature. It is quite common for us to identify a region with its language.

Regions developed due to shared commonalty amongst the people like language, traditional rituals, and food habits. The traditions we follow have evolved through the intermingling of cultures.

1. What are Regional Cultures?

Language ties people together as a community more strongly than any other factor.
People are often identified by the language they speak, such as Tamil, Bengali, Oriya, etc.
Each region is also known for its food, clothes, dance, music, painting and traditions.
Regional cultures did not exist from the beginning of time.
They developed slowly through the mixing of local traditions and outside influences.
Boundaries of regions have changed over time and are still changing.

2. The Cheras and the Development of Malayalam

The Chera kingdom was established in the 9th century in present-day Kerala.
Malayalam was spoken in this region.
Chera rulers used Malayalam and its script in their inscriptions.
This is one of the earliest examples of a regional language being used for writing.
Sanskrit traditions strongly influenced Kerala culture.
Temple theatre in Kerala borrowed stories from Sanskrit epics.
Many early Malayalam texts were based on Sanskrit.
Manipravalam was a special style of writing that mixed Sanskrit and Malayalam.

3. Rulers and Religious Traditions: The Jagannatha Cult

In Odisha, regional culture grew around the worship of Lord Jagannatha at Puri.
Jagannatha means “Lord of the World” and is a form of Vishnu.
Tribal people still make the wooden idols of Jagannatha.
The deity was later identified with Vishnu.
In the 12th century, King Anantavarman of the Ganga dynasty built the Jagannatha temple.
In 1230, King Anangabhima III dedicated his kingdom to Lord Jagannatha.
He called himself the deputy of the god.
The temple became an important religious, social and political centre.
Mughals, Marathas and the British tried to control the temple to gain local support.

4. The Rajputs and Traditions of Heroism

The British called present-day Rajasthan ‘Rajputana’ in the 19th century.
Rajputs lived in many parts of northern and central India.
From the 8th century, many Rajput families ruled Rajasthan.
Rajput rulers believed in bravery, honour and heroism.
Heroes preferred death to defeat.
Their stories were written in poems and songs.
These were recited by minstrels to inspire people.
Women were sometimes shown performing jauhar or following their husbands in death.
Ordinary people were attracted to these emotional and dramatic stories.

5. Beyond Regional Frontiers: The Story of Kathak

Kathak is a classical dance form of north India.
The word ‘Kathak’ comes from ‘katha’, meaning story.
Kathaks were temple storytellers who used dance, music and gestures.
Kathak developed during the Bhakti movement.
Stories of Radha and Krishna were performed in folk plays.
Under the Mughals, Kathak was performed in royal courts.
It became more graceful and formal.
Two main styles (gharanas) developed:
- Jaipur gharana (Rajasthan)
- Lucknow gharana (Awadh)
Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was an important patron of Kathak.
British officials disliked Kathak.
After independence, Kathak was recognised as a classical dance form.
KATHAK
cLASSICAL

6. Classical and Folk Dance Forms

Defining ‘classical’ dance is complex.
Classical dances usually:
- Require long training
- Follow fixed rules
- Need great skill
Folk dances also have many similar features.
Classical dances of India include:
- Bharatanatyam – Tamil Nadu
- Kathak – North India
- Kathakali – Kerala
- Odissi – Odisha
- Kuchipudi – Andhra Pradesh
- Manipuri – Manipur

7. Painting for Patrons: Miniature Paintings

Miniature paintings are small-sized paintings.
They are made using water colours on paper or cloth.
Early miniatures were made on palm leaves and wood.
Jain texts in western India had early miniatures.
Mughal emperors like Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan patronised miniature paintings.
These paintings showed court scenes, battles, hunting and social life.
With the decline of the Mughal Empire, painters moved to regional courts.
Mughal style influenced Rajput and Deccan paintings.
Important centres in Rajasthan were Mewar, Jodhpur, Bundi, Kota and Kishangarh.
In Himachal Pradesh, the Basohli style developed.
Later, the Kangra school of painting emerged.
Kangra paintings used soft colours and themes from Vaishnavism.

8. A Closer Look at Bengal: Growth of a Regional Language

People did not always speak Bengali in Bengal.
Early inscriptions show non-Sanskrit languages were spoken.
Trade with Magadha introduced Sanskrit words.
Gupta rulers settled Brahmanas in Bengal.
Sanskrit influence increased over time.
By the 7th century, Sanskrit-based languages were widely used.
Under the Palas, Bengal became a strong regional kingdom.
Sultans ruled Bengal between the 14th and 16th centuries.
Persian was the language of administration, but Bengali developed as a regional language.
Modern Bengali evolved through many stages.
It includes words from Sanskrit, tribal languages, Persian and European languages.

9. Early Bengali Literature

Early Bengali literature had two main types:

(a) Sanskrit-based literature

Translations of Sanskrit epics
Mangalakavyas (poems about local deities)
Bhakti literature, including biographies of Chaitanyadeva

(b) Popular and oral literature

Nath literature (songs of Maynamati and Gopichandra)
Stories of Dharma Thakur
Folk tales, fairy tales and ballads
These were mostly passed orally and not written down.

10. Pirs and Temples in Bengal

From the sixteenth century, many people migrated from western Bengal to south-eastern Bengal.
Western Bengal had less fertile land, while eastern Bengal had forests and marshy areas.
Migrants cleared forests and brought land under rice cultivation.
Local fisherfolk, shifting cultivators, and tribal groups slowly merged with the new peasant communities.
This process helped in the expansion of agriculture and settlements.

From the 16th century, people migrated to eastern Bengal.
Forests were cleared and land was used for farming.
Local tribals mixed with new settlers.

Role of the Mughals

This migration happened during the establishment of Mughal control over Bengal.
The Mughal capital was set up in the fertile eastern region.
Mughal officials received land and built mosques, which became centres of religious change.

Mughal control helped organise these regions.

Pirs and Community Life

Early settlers needed security and guidance in new and unstable areas.
Community leaders acted as teachers, judges, and guides.
They were believed to have supernatural powers and were called Pirs.
The term Pir included:
- Sufi saints
- Soldiers
- Hindu and Buddhist deities
- Animistic spirits
The cult of Pirs became very popular in Bengal.
Shrines of Pirs are found all over Bengal and were visited by people of different communities.

Temple building increased between the 16th and 19th centuries.
Temples showed power and devotion of local groups.

Temple Building in Bengal

Bengal saw a temple-building movement from the late nineteenth century.
Temples were built by people who were becoming economically and socially powerful.
Many temples were supported by “low” social groups like:
- Kolu (oil pressers)
- Kansari (bell metal workers)
European trading companies created new economic opportunities.
As people became prosperous, they showed their status by building temples.

Bengali Temple Architecture

Village deities once worshipped in huts were later placed in temples after Brahmanical recognition.
Temples copied hut designs:
- Do-chala (double-roofed)
- Char-chala (four-roofed)
This led to the development of a distinct Bengali temple style.
Temples were usually built on a square platform.

Interiors were simple, but outer walls were decorated with:
- Terracotta tablets
- Paintings
- Ornamental tiles
Temples of Vishnupur (Bankura district) are famous for fine terracotta work.

11. Fish as Food in Bengal

Bengal is a river-rich region.
Rice and fish are staple food.
Fishing is an important occupation.
Fish is mentioned often in Bengali literature and temple art.
Brahmanas were normally not allowed to eat fish.
Due to local food habits, this rule was relaxed in Bengal.

1. What is Manipravalam? Name a book written in that language.

Simple Answer:
Manipravalam means “diamonds and corals”. It is a mix of Sanskrit and a regional language. This style of writing was used mainly in South India. Lilatilakam is a famous book written in Manipravalam. It explains grammar and poetry.

3. Who were the major patrons of Kathak?

Simple Answer:
Kathak developed during the Bhakti movement when stories of Radha and Krishna were performed in Rasa Lila. Later, Kathak was performed in the courts of Mughal emperors and nobles. It developed in two main traditions—Jaipur and Lucknow. Kathak grew greatly under Wajid Ali Shah, the last Nawab of Awadh, who was its major patron.

4. What are the important architectural features of the temples of Bengal?

Simple Answer:
Bengal saw large-scale temple building from the fifteenth to the nineteenth century. Many temples were built with brick and terracotta. They copied village huts and had double-roofed (dochala) or four-roofed (chauchala) designs. Temples were built on a square platform and had simple interiors. Their outer walls were decorated with terracotta plaques, paintings, and tiles, especially in Vishnupur.

5. Why did minstrels proclaim the achievements of heroes?

Simple Answer:
Minstrels sang songs and poems about Rajput heroes to preserve their memories. These stories praised bravery, loyalty, and honour. They inspired people to follow the example of these heroes. Ordinary people enjoyed these stories because they were full of strong emotions like love, friendship, courage, and sacrifice.

6. Why did conquerors try to control the temple of Jagannatha at Puri?

Simple Answer:
The Jagannatha temple at Puri was an important religious and pilgrimage centre. Rulers believed that controlling the temple would help them gain the support of local people. Therefore, the Mughals, Marathas, and the British tried to control it so that their rule would be accepted by the people.

7. Why were temples built in Bengal?

Simple Answer:
European trading companies brought new economic opportunities to Bengal. Many people became richer and improved their social status. To show their devotion and power, they built temples. Artisan groups like the Kolu and Kansari also supported temple construction. Local village deities were later worshipped in temples after Brahmanas accepted them.

MCQs (35 Questions)

The Chera kingdom of Mahodayapuram was established in the
a) Eighth century
b) Ninth century
c) Tenth century
d) Eleventh century
Mahodayapuram was located in present-day
a) Tamil Nadu
b) Karnataka
c) Kerala
d) Andhra Pradesh
Malayalam was first used in
a) Folk songs
b) Temple rituals
c) Official inscriptions
d) Court poetry
The fourteenth-century text on grammar and poetics was called
a) Mangalakavya
b) Rasamanjari
c) Lilatilakam
d) Buranji
Manipravalam was a mixture of
a) Tamil and Telugu
b) Sanskrit and regional language
c) Persian and Arabic
d) Hindi and Urdu
Jagannatha is another name for
a) Shiva
b) Brahma
c) Vishnu
d) Indra
The Jagannatha temple is located at
a) Bhubaneswar
b) Konark
c) Puri
d) Cuttack
The ruler who built the Jagannatha temple was
a) Anangabhima III
b) Anantavarman
c) Prithviraj
d) Akbar
The Rajput region was called Rajputana by the
a) Mughals
b) Marathas
c) British
d) Afghans
Rajput heroes preferred
a) Surrender
b) Exile
c) Death on battlefield
d) Negotiation
Kathak is derived from the word
a) Natya
b) Nritya
c) Katha
d) Kala
Kathaks were originally
a) Soldiers
b) Story-tellers
c) Farmers
d) Priests
Kathak developed during the spread of the
a) Sufi movement
b) Bhakti movement
c) Reform movement
d) Tribal movement
Kathak developed into gharanas at
a) Delhi and Agra
b) Jaipur and Lucknow
c) Bengal and Bihar
d) Madurai and Mysore
Wajid Ali Shah was the Nawab of
a) Bengal
b) Awadh
c) Hyderabad
d) Mysore
Miniatures were usually painted on
a) Stone
b) Metal
c) Cloth or paper
d) Glass
Mughal emperors who patronised miniature paintings included
a) Babur
b) Akbar
c) Aurangzeb only
d) Sher Shah
Basohli style of painting developed in
a) Rajasthan
b) Bengal
c) Himalayan foothills
d) Gujarat
The Kangra school of painting was inspired by
a) Shaivism
b) Vaishnavism
c) Jainism
d) Buddhism
Bengali is derived mainly from
a) Persian
b) Arabic
c) Sanskrit
d) Tamil
The Palas ruled Bengal from the
a) Sixth century
b) Eighth century
c) Tenth century
d) Twelfth century
Persian was the language of administration under
a) Palas
b) Sultans
c) Mughals
d) British
The Mangalakavyas dealt mainly with
a) Trade
b) Local deities
c) Wars
d) Science
The Naths were
a) Traders
b) Farmers
c) Ascetics
d) Soldiers
The word ‘Pir’ means
a) King
b) Teacher
c) Spiritual guide
d) Warrior
Bengal temples often copied the style of
a) Forts
b) Mosques
c) Thatched huts
d) Palaces
The four-roofed temple style is called
a) Dochala
b) Chauchala
c) Shikhara
d) Mandapa
Vishnupur is famous for
a) Mosques
b) Forts
c) Terracotta temples
d) Caves
Bengal is known as a
a) Desert region
b) Riverine plain
c) Mountain region
d) Plateau
Fish was allowed for Bengal Brahmanas by
a) Akbar
b) Brihaddharma Purana
c) Vedas
d) Arthashastra
The Jagannatha cult became important in the
a) Tenth century
b) Twelfth century
c) Fourteenth century
d) Sixteenth century
Minstrels recited poems about
a) Farmers
b) Saints
c) Heroes
d) Merchants
The Rasamanjari was painted in the
a) Mughal court
b) Basohli style
c) Deccan style
d) Persian style
Bengali literature developed strongly by the
a) Twelfth century
b) Fifteenth century
c) Seventeenth century
d) Nineteenth century
Temples in Bengal were often built by
a) Kings only
b) Brahmanas only
c) Low social groups
d) Foreign traders
The Jagannatha temple at Puri was a centre of
a) Trade
b) Pilgrimage
c) Education
d) Administration
Anangabhima III dedicated his kingdom to
a) Shiva
b) Vishnu
c) Jagannatha
d) Durga
Rajput rulers were known for their
a) Trade skills
b) Maritime power
c) Valour and honour
d) Agricultural reforms
The term “Rajput” literally means
a) Son of a priest
b) Son of a king
c) Son of a warrior
d) Son of a farmer
Court chronicles in Rajasthan described
a) Trade routes
b) Religious rituals
c) Lives of rulers and battles
d) Farming methods
Kathak performances later became popular in
a) Village fairs
b) Royal courts
c) Temples only
d) Forest areas
Wajid Ali Shah was a patron of
a) Bharatanatyam
b) Kathak
c) Kuchipudi
d) Odissi
Miniature paintings often illustrated
a) Agricultural tools
b) Religious themes and court scenes
c) Maps
d) Weapons
The Mughal style of painting combined Indian and
a) Chinese styles
b) Persian styles
c) Greek styles
d) Roman styles
The Kangra school of painting became famous for paintings of
a) War scenes
b) Hunting scenes
c) Radha-Krishna
d) Mughal emperors
The growth of regional languages was closely linked to
a) Decline of trade
b) Spread of Bhakti movement
c) Foreign invasions
d) British rule
The Mangalakavyas were composed in
a) Sanskrit
b) Persian
c) Bengali
d) Tamil
The riverine nature of Bengal helped in the growth of
a) Mining
b) Agriculture and trade
c) Desert culture
d) Nomadic life
Terracotta temples of Bengal were decorated with
a) Marble carvings
b) Wooden panels
c) Clay panels
d) Glass paintings

Regional cultures developed due to
a) Uniform traditions
b) Isolation only
c) Interaction of local traditions and broader cultures
d) Foreign rule alone

✏️ Fill in the Blanks (15)

The Chera kingdom of Mahodayapuram was established in the __________ century.
The earliest use of Malayalam was found in __________.
Lilatilakam was written in __________ language.
Jagannatha temple is located at __________.
The ruler Anangabhima III declared himself the __________ of the deity.
Rajput heroes chose death over __________.
Kathak originated from temple __________.
Kathak developed into two traditions called __________.
Miniature paintings were generally done in __________ colours.
The Basohli style developed in the __________ foothills.
Bengali developed from __________ language.
The Palas ruled Bengal from the __________ century.
A Persian word meaning spiritual guide is __________.
The double-roofed temple style is called __________.
The Brihaddharma Purana permitted Bengal Brahmanas to eat certain varieties of __________.

MCQs with Answers (35)

The Chera kingdom of Mahodayapuram was established in the
a) Eighth century
b) Ninth century
c) Tenth century
d) Eleventh century
Answer: b) Ninth century

Mahodayapuram was located in present-day
a) Tamil Nadu
b) Karnataka
c) Kerala
d) Andhra Pradesh
Answer: c) Kerala

Malayalam was first used in
a) Folk songs
b) Temple rituals
c) Official inscriptions
d) Court poetry
Answer: c) Official inscriptions

The fourteenth-century text on grammar and poetics was called
a) Mangalakavya
b) Rasamanjari
c) Lilatilakam
d) Buranji
Answer: c) Lilatilakam

Manipravalam was a mixture of
a) Tamil and Telugu
b) Sanskrit and regional language
c) Persian and Arabic
d) Hindi and Urdu
Answer: b) Sanskrit and regional language

Jagannatha is another name for
a) Shiva
b) Brahma
c) Vishnu
d) Indra
Answer: c) Vishnu

The Jagannatha temple is located at
a) Bhubaneswar
b) Konark
c) Puri
d) Cuttack
Answer: c) Puri

The ruler who built the Jagannatha temple was
a) Anangabhima III
b) Anantavarman
c) Prithviraj
d) Akbar
Answer: b) Anantavarman

The Rajput region was called Rajputana by the
a) Mughals
b) Marathas
c) British
d) Afghans
Answer: c) British

Rajput heroes preferred
a) Surrender
b) Exile
c) Death on battlefield
d) Negotiation
Answer: c) Death on battlefield

Kathak is derived from the word
a) Natya
b) Nritya
c) Katha
d) Kala
Answer: c) Katha

Kathaks were originally
a) Soldiers
b) Story-tellers
c) Farmers
d) Priests
Answer: b) Story-tellers

Kathak developed during the spread of the
a) Sufi movement
b) Bhakti movement
c) Reform movement
d) Tribal movement
Answer: b) Bhakti movement

Kathak developed into gharanas at
a) Delhi and Agra
b) Jaipur and Lucknow
c) Bengal and Bihar
d) Madurai and Mysore
Answer: b) Jaipur and Lucknow

Wajid Ali Shah was the Nawab of
a) Bengal
b) Awadh
c) Hyderabad
d) Mysore
Answer: b) Awadh

Miniatures were usually painted on
a) Stone
b) Metal
c) Cloth or paper
d) Glass
Answer: c) Cloth or paper

Mughal emperors who patronised miniature paintings included
a) Babur
b) Akbar
c) Aurangzeb only
d) Sher Shah
Answer: b) Akbar

Basohli style of painting developed in
a) Rajasthan
b) Bengal
c) Himalayan foothills
d) Gujarat
Answer: c) Himalayan foothills

The Kangra school of painting was inspired by
a) Shaivism
b) Vaishnavism
c) Jainism
d) Buddhism
Answer: b) Vaishnavism

Bengali is derived mainly from
a) Persian
b) Arabic
c) Sanskrit
d) Tamil
Answer: c) Sanskrit

The Palas ruled Bengal from the
a) Sixth century
b) Eighth century
c) Tenth century
d) Twelfth century
Answer: b) Eighth century

Persian was the language of administration under
a) Palas
b) Sultans
c) Mughals
d) British
Answer: c) Mughals

The Mangalakavyas dealt mainly with
a) Trade
b) Local deities
c) Wars
d) Science
Answer: b) Local deities

The Naths were
a) Traders
b) Farmers
c) Ascetics
d) Soldiers
Answer: c) Ascetics

The word ‘Pir’ means
a) King
b) Teacher
c) Spiritual guide
d) Warrior
Answer: c) Spiritual guide

Bengal temples often copied the style of
a) Forts
b) Mosques
c) Thatched huts
d) Palaces
Answer: c) Thatched huts

The four-roofed temple style is called
a) Dochala
b) Chauchala
c) Shikhara
d) Mandapa
Answer: b) Chauchala

Vishnupur is famous for
a) Mosques
b) Forts
c) Terracotta temples
d) Caves
Answer: c) Terracotta temples

Bengal is known as a
a) Desert region
b) Riverine plain
c) Mountain region
d) Plateau
Answer: b) Riverine plain

Fish was allowed for Bengal Brahmanas by
a) Akbar
b) Brihaddharma Purana
c) Vedas
d) Arthashastra
Answer: b) Brihaddharma Purana

The Jagannatha cult became important in the
a) Tenth century
b) Twelfth century
c) Fourteenth century
d) Sixteenth century
Answer: b) Twelfth century

Minstrels recited poems about
a) Farmers
b) Saints
c) Heroes
d) Merchants
Answer: c) Heroes

The Rasamanjari was painted in the
a) Mughal court
b) Basohli style
c) Deccan style
d) Persian style
Answer: b) Basohli style

Bengali literature developed strongly by the
a) Twelfth century
b) Fifteenth century
c) Seventeenth century
d) Nineteenth century
Answer: b) Fifteenth century

Temples in Bengal were often built by
a) Kings only
b) Brahmanas only
c) Low social groups
d) Foreign traders
Answer: c) Low social groups

b) Pilgrimage

c) Jagannatha

c) Valour and honour

b) Son of a king

c) Lives of rulers and battles

b) Royal courts

b) Kathak

b) Religious themes and court scenes

b) Persian styles

c) Radha-Krishna

b) Spread of Bhakti movement

c) Bengali

b) Agriculture and trade

c) Clay panels

c) Interaction of local traditions and broader cultures

✏️ Fill in the Blanks with Answers (15)

The Chera kingdom of Mahodayapuram was established in the Ninth century.

The earliest use of Malayalam was found in Inscriptions.

Lilatilakam was written in Manipravalam language.

Jagannatha temple is located at Puri.

Anangabhima III declared himself the Deputy of the deity.

Rajput heroes chose death over Surrender.

Kathak originated from temple Story-telling.

Kathak developed into two traditions called Gharanas.

Miniature paintings were generally done in Bright colours.

The Basohli style developed in the Himalayan foothills.

Bengali developed from Sanskrit language.

The Palas ruled Bengal from the Eighth century.

A Persian word meaning spiritual guide is Pir.

The double-roofed temple style is called Dochala.

The Brihaddharma Purana permitted Bengal Brahmanas to eat certain varieties of Fish.

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Class Notes

The Making of Regional Cultures