Beyond Big Cities: Tribal Societies

Who Were Tribal People?

Tribal societies in the subcontinent did not follow the rigid social rules or rituals set by the Brahmanas.
They were not divided into numerous unequal classes like the caste system.
Tribes were united by kinship bonds, and their livelihood came from agriculture, hunting-gathering, or herding.
Some tribes were nomadic, moving from place to place, and controlled land and pastures collectively.
Tribes lived in forests, hills, deserts, and other areas hard to access, often in conflict with more powerful caste-based societies.
While these tribes maintained their independence, they depended on the caste-based societies for various needs.

Historians have limited information about tribes due to the lack of written records.
Tribal histories are passed down orally and have been used by contemporary historians.
Tribes were found throughout the subcontinent, and their power and territorial influence varied.
Examples of influential tribes:

Punjab: Khokhar tribe, later the Gakkhars.
Multan & Sind: Langahs and Arghuns, subdued by the Mughals.
North-West: Balochis and other smaller clans.
Western Himalayas: Gaddis, a shepherd tribe.
North-East: Nagas and Ahoms, among others.
Bihar & Jharkhand: Chero tribes, often in conflict with the Mughals.
Central & Western India: Bhils, Gonds, Kolis, Berads, and others.

Arghuns (Turkish-Mongol)

Langhas (Jats)

Baloch Tribe (Iranian Nomadic)

Ahom Tribe

How Nomads and Mobile People Lived?

Nomadic pastoralists moved with animals and lived off milk and other animal products.
They traded goods like wool, ghee, and cloth with settled agriculturists for other goods.
Banjaras, the most notable trading nomads, used bullocks to transport grain for markets and military campaigns.
Mendicants and petty peddlers travelled from village to village selling wares like ropes, reeds, and coarse sacks.
Wandering entertainers performed in towns and villages for a living.

Banjara Tribe

Changing Society: New Castes and Hierarchies

As the economy and society grew, new skills were required, leading to the emergence of smaller castes, or jatis.
Jatis, rather than the traditional varnas, became the basis for social organization.
Rajput clans emerged among Kshatriyas by the 11th and 12th centuries, often replacing older rulers.
Many tribes joined the caste system with the support of the Brahmanas, though only the elite families entered the ruling class.
In regions like Punjab and Sind, Islam spread early, and caste-based Hinduism was rejected.

1. New Crafts and Skilled Work

When towns grew, new jobs appeared:

Weavers
Potters
Carpenters
Smiths (ironsmiths, goldsmiths)
Oil pressers
Dyers (colouring cloth)

Each group of workers formed a separate jati based on their occupation.

2. New Agricultural Jobs

As farming expanded:

Land-clearers
Irrigation workers
Ploughmen

These people also formed different jatis.

3. Soldiers and Warriors

Some tribal warriors became powerful and formed Rajput clans.
These clans later got recognised as Kshatriyas (warrior caste).

This changed the social order.

4. Traders and Merchants

As trade increased:

Banjaras (transport traders)
Local merchants
Grain traders
Salt sellers

They also started forming their own jati groups.

A Closer Look

The Gonds

Who are the Gonds?

The Gonds are one of the largest tribal groups of India. They mainly live in the central parts of India, especially in Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Odisha.

Lifestyle

The Gonds traditionally live in villages surrounded by forests and hills.
They usually build simple houses made of mud, bamboo, and thatched roofs.
They rely on farming, hunting, and collecting forest products for their livelihood.

Occupation

Most Gonds are farmers.
They grow crops like rice, maize, millets, and vegetables.
They also raise cows, goats, and chickens.
Some also work as craftsmen, making wooden items and iron tools.

Culture

The Gond community is known for colorful festivals, songs, and dances.
Their artwork, known as Gond Art, is world famous for its bright colors and unique patterns.
They worship nature, animals, and local deities.

Social Structure

They lived under small chiefs or leaders called Rajas.
The Gonds had a system of clans, and members of the same clan were considered one family.

Famous Gond Kingdom

The Gondwana Kingdom was a large kingdom ruled by Gond rulers in ancient times.
One famous ruler was Rani Durgavati, known for her bravery.

What was the Gondwana Kingdom?

The Gondwana Kingdom was a powerful kingdom ruled by the Gond tribe in central India. It existed from around the 14th to 18th century.

Location

The kingdom covered parts of:

Madhya Pradesh
Chhattisgarh
Maharashtra
Andhra Pradesh

This whole region was known as Gondwana because many Gonds lived there.

Rulers

The Gondwana Kingdom had many brave rulers.
One of the most famous was:

⭐ Rani Durgavati

She ruled the kingdom with great courage.
She fought bravely against the Mughal army.
She is remembered as a brave queen in Indian history.

Administration

The kingdom was divided into garhs (small regions).
Each garh had many villages.
A leader called a gharati managed each garh.
The Gond rulers improved farming, collected taxes, and kept peace.

Culture and Society

The Gonds followed their own traditions, songs, dances, and festivals.
They worshipped nature, animals, and local gods.
People lived in villages and mainly worked as farmers or craftsmen.

Decline of the Gondwana Kingdom

By the 18th century, the kingdom became weak due to:

internal conflicts
attacks by the Mughals and Marathas

The Gonds lived in the region of Gondwana, where they practiced shifting cultivation and had a clan-based structure.
Gond kingdoms had a centralized administrative system, divided into regions called garhs, further split into smaller units such as Chaurasi (84 villages) and Barhots (12 Villages).
As the Delhi Sultanate weakened, larger Gond kingdoms began to rise, with Garha Katanga becoming a major kingdom.
It was ruled by the Gond kings, like Sangram Shah and later his son Dalpat Shah.
The kingdom was very large, with about 70,000 villages.
Its administration was well-organised, divided into Garh (70000 Villages)→ Chaurasi → Barhot → Village.
The kingdom became wealthy through:
- - Agriculture
  - Forest products
  - Capturing and trading wild elephants
Rani Durgawati, the famous warrior queen, ruled after Dalpat Shah’s death and defended the kingdom against the Mughals in 1565.
Despite the fall of Garha Katanga, Gond kingdoms survived for a while, although weakened by later conflicts with the Bundelas and Marathas.

Before	After

Equal society

Division based on power and wealth

No land ownership

Rulers gave land to Brahmanas and nobles

Clan chiefs

Kings and large courts

People worked together.

Some became workers, some became landlords

The Ahoms

The Ahoms migrated to the Brahmaputra Valley from Myanmar in the 13th century and built a powerful state.
The Ahoms used firearms and cannons by the 1530s and subjugated many tribes, including the Chhutiyas and Koch-Hajo.
They faced a significant Mughal invasion in 1662 but successfully resisted long-term Mughal control.
The Ahoms organized their society using a forced labor system, with paiks (laborers) performing various state duties.
The society was clan-based, and most administrative power lay in local communities, although the king had considerable influence.
Over time, the influence of Brahmanas grew, and Hinduism was adopted as the state religion by the 17th century.
Despite adopting Hinduism, the Ahoms maintained some of their traditional beliefs, and their society remained sophisticated, with significant cultural achievements like literature and theater.

1. How was the administration of the Ahom state organised?
The administration of the Ahom state was based on forced labour, and the people who worked for the state were called paiks. Every village had to send a certain number of paiks in rotation for government work. By the seventeenth century, the Ahom administration became highly centralised, and almost all adult males served in the army during wars. In peaceful times, they built dams, irrigation canals, and other public works, and also introduced new methods of rice cultivation. Ahom society was divided into khels or clans, each controlling several villages. Land was given to peasants by the village community, and even the king could not take it away without the community’s approval.
2. What changes took place in varna-based society?
During this period, varna-based society changed because it came into regular contact with various tribal groups. Many tribes adopted new occupations and slowly merged into the caste system, while some rejected it. Some tribal groups became powerful and built organised states, which sometimes brought them into conflict with larger kingdoms.
3. How did tribal societies change after being organised into a state?
When tribal societies became states, their leaders acted like kings and entered higher jatis with Brahmana support, while ordinary tribes joined lower jatis. Some tribes, like the Ahoms, came under Brahmana influence and adopted Hinduism, though they kept some traditional beliefs. As states grew stronger, they faced conflicts with big kingdoms.
4. Were the Banjaras important for the economy?
Yes, the Banjaras were very important because they transported goods over long distances. Their caravans supplied grain to cities and Mughal armies, helping trade by buying grain where it was cheap and selling it where it was expensive. They played a key role in trade and economic activity.
5. In what ways was the history of the Gonds different from that of the Ahoms? Were there any similarities?

The histories of the Gonds and the Ahoms had both similarities and differences. Both belonged to tribal communities and built large, centralised states divided into clans. However, the Gonds lived in the forested region of Gondwana in central India and followed shifting cultivation. In contrast, the Ahoms migrated from present-day Myanmar to the Brahmaputra valley in the thirteenth century and established a new state by defeating the local bhuiyans. They expanded by annexing the Chhutiyas in 1523 and Koch-Hajo in 1581. While the Gonds developed kingdoms like Garha Katanga with 70,000 villages, the Ahoms built a powerful state in Assam and ruled over many tribes.

EXTRA QUESTIONS

Tribal societies were mainly united by
a) Religion
b) Kinship bonds
c) Trade
d) Language
Answer: b) Kinship bonds
The Banjaras were mainly
a) Farmers
b) Soldiers
c) Trader-nomads
d) Priests
Answer: c) Trader-nomads
The caravan of the Banjaras was called
a) Garh
b) Tanda
c) Khel
d) Chaurasi
Answer: b) Tanda
The Gonds practised
a) Plantation farming
b) Shifting cultivation
c) Fishing
d) Mining
Answer: b) Shifting cultivation
The Ahoms migrated from present-day
a) Nepal
b) Sri Lanka
c) Myanmar
d) China
Answer: c) Myanmar
Historical works written by the Ahoms were called
a) Manuscripts
b) Buranjis
c) Chronicles
d) Inscriptions
Answer: b) Buranjis
The Ahom forced labour system was known as
a) Paik system
b) Jagirdari system
c) Zamindari system
d) Mansabdari system
Answer: a) Paik system
The Gond kingdom of Garha Katanga was attacked by
a) Babur
b) Akbar
c) Asaf Khan
d) Jahangir
Answer: c) Asaf Khan
Smaller castes that emerged within varnas were called
a) Clans
b) Jatis
c) Khels
d) Garhs
Answer: b) Jatis
The Gonds lived in the region called
a) Gondwana
b) Ahomland
c) Rajputana
d) Malwa
Answer: a) Gondwana
The Ahom society was divided into
a) Jatis
b) Khels
c) Tandas
d) Clans only
Answer: b) Khels
Rani Durgawati belonged to the
a) Ahom tribe
b) Rajput family
c) Mughal family
d) Maratha clan
Answer: b) Rajput family

Fill in the Blanks (8)

Members of each tribe were united by __________ bonds.
Answer: Kinship
The Banjaras transported goods using __________.
Answer: Bullocks
The Gond kingdom was divided into units called __________.
Answer: Garhs
Each chaurasi consisted of __________ villages.
Answer: 84
The Ahoms used a forced labour system called the __________ system.
Answer: Paik
The Gonds practised __________ cultivation.
Answer: Shifting
Smaller castes emerging within varnas were known as __________.
Answer: Jatis
Historical records written in the Ahom kingdom were called __________.
Answer: Buranjis

Long Answer Questions (50–60 Words Each)

1. Who were tribal people?

Tribal people were communities united by kinship bonds and shared customs. They lived in forests, hills and deserts and followed different lifestyles such as hunting, herding, agriculture or shifting cultivation. They did not strictly follow the varna system. Tribal societies had rich oral traditions and preserved their culture through stories and customs passed from generation to generation.

2. How did the Banjaras contribute to the economy?

The Banjaras were important trader-nomads who transported goods like grain across long distances using bullocks. Their caravans, called tandas, supplied food to cities and armies, especially during the reign of Alauddin Khalji and the Mughals. They bought goods cheaply and sold them where prices were higher, playing a key role in trade and distribution.

3. Describe the administration of the Gond kingdom.

The Gond kingdom was divided into garhs, each controlled by a Gond clan. Each garh was further divided into chaurasis (84 villages), and each chaurasi into barhots (12 villages). Over time, their administration became centralised. Gond rulers gave land grants to Brahmanas and adopted Rajput titles to increase their political status and power.

4. Who was Rani Durgawati? Why is she remembered?

Rani Durgawati was a brave Gond queen who ruled on behalf of her young son after her husband’s death. She expanded her kingdom and governed efficiently. When the Mughal forces under Asaf Khan attacked Garha Katanga in 1565, she fought courageously. Rather than surrender, she chose to die, and is remembered for her bravery.

5. How was the Ahom state organised?

The Ahom state had a well-organised administration. It depended on the paik system, where people provided forced labour for the state. The population was divided into khels or clans. Adult males served in the army during war and built public works during peace. The Ahoms also conducted censuses and introduced improved rice cultivation methods.

6. What changes took place in varna-based society?

As society grew, many new jatis emerged within the varna system. Tribal groups were absorbed into caste society and given specific status. Artisans like carpenters and smiths became recognised as separate jatis. Over time, jati became more important than varna in organising society, and social hierarchies became more rigid and unequal.

7. How did tribal societies change after forming states?

When tribal societies formed large states, their simple and equal structure changed. Administration became centralised and rulers adopted titles and customs of higher castes. Land grants were given to Brahmanas, increasing inequality. Tribal chiefs sought recognition as Rajputs. This led to social divisions and conflicts with larger kingdoms like the Mughals.

8. What were the similarities and differences between the Gonds and the Ahoms?

Both the Gonds and Ahoms established strong states and developed organised administrations. However, the Gonds practised shifting cultivation and were divided into garhs, while the Ahoms used the paik system and divided society into khels. The Ahoms developed a more centralised administration and maintained historical records called buranjis, unlike the Gonds.

Tribes, Nomads and Settled Communities