THE MUGHALS: 16TH TO 17TH CENTURY

1. Who Were the Mughals?

The Mughals were a powerful Muslim dynasty that ruled most of the Indian subcontinent from 1526 to 1857. They are remembered for their strong government, magnificent architecture (like the Taj Mahal), rich culture, and promotion of art and learning.

The Mughals were originally from Central Asia, which includes regions that are now part of Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, and parts of Afghanistan.

They were Turko-Mongol in origin.

From their father’s side, the Mughals were descendants of Timur (Tamerlane), the famous conqueror who ruled parts of Central Asia and invaded India in 1398.

From their mother’s side, they were connected to Genghis Khan, the Mongol ruler. As his memory was associated with bloodshed, they never wanted to be called as Mongols.

2. Who founded the Mughal Dynasty in India? How?

Babur, born in Fergana (in present-day Uzbekistan), was the founder of the Mughal Empire.

He defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 and established Mughal rule in India.

Babur was the great-great-grandson of Timur, which gave him royal prestige and a claim to rule.

3. Under the Mughal tradition of succession, what was the Timurid custom of coparcenary, and how was it different from primogeniture?

Under the Mughal tradition, the Timurid custom of coparcenary meant that all sons had an equal right to inherit the throne and property. There was no fixed successor, so the emperor's sons often fought each other to become the next ruler. This was different from primogeniture, where only the eldest son inherited the throne and property without any dispute.

Additional Notes

Timur Dynasty – Short Description

Timur, also known as Tamerlane, was not part of a dynasty like the Mughals or Delhi Sultans. He was the founder of the Timurid Empire in Central Asia.

When did he attack India?
Timur attacked India in 1398.
Why did he attack?
He came to plunder wealth and spread Islam, using the excuse that the Delhi Sultanate was ruled by a weak ruler and had many non-Muslims.
What happened during the attack?
Timur defeated Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud Tughluq and looted Delhi, causing mass destruction and killing thousands.
What was the result?
His invasion weakened the Delhi Sultanate and left it unstable, paving the way for future invasions like that of Babur (Timur's descendant).

Who is a Mansabdar?

A Mansabdar was a person who held a rank or position in the Mughal army and administration.

The word ‘Mansab’ means rank or position.
Mansabdars were appointed by the emperor, like Akbar, and they worked as military commanders or government officers.
They were given land or salary in return for their service.
They had to maintain a certain number of soldiers and horses based on their rank.\
The Mansab system had numbers like 500, 1000, 5000—the higher the number, the higher the rank.

Duties of a Mansabdar:

Maintain the required number of soldiers and horses.
Be ready to fight in wars when ordered.
Help in governing provinces and collecting revenue.

What is Zat of a Mansabdar?

The Zat was one part of the Mansabdari system started by Akbar.

Zat means the personal rank of a Mansabdar.
It showed the importance, status, and salary of the Mansabdar.
The higher the Zat number, the more important the officer was, and the higher salary he received.

What was the Zabt System?

The Zabt System was a method of land revenue collection used during the Mughal Empire, especially under Emperor Akbar.

What does Zabt mean?

The word Zabt means “to control” or “to record”.
It was a way to measure land and fix the amount of tax (revenue) a farmer had to pay.

How did it work?

The land was measured using special ropes or measuring tools.
The average produce of the land was calculated (based on past 10 years).
Based on the type of land and crops, a fixed amount of tax was set.
Farmers paid the tax in money, not in crops.

Major Mughal Rulers and Their Contributions

Ruler	Reign	Main Events
Babur	1526–1530	- Founded the Mughal Empire in India after the First Battle of Panipat. - Wrote his autobiography Baburnama. - Introduced new war tactics (like guns and cannons).
Humayun	1530–1540 & 1555–56	- Lost his empire to Sher Shah Suri but later regained it with Persian help. - Died after falling from library stairs.
Akbar	1556–1605	- Greatest Mughal ruler. - Known for religious tolerance and started Din-i-Ilahi. - Created an efficient administration and Mansabdari system. - Expanded the empire greatly.
Jahangir	1605–1627	- Known for justice ("Chain of Justice"). - Loved art and painting. - His court had famous artist Ustad Mansur.
Shah Jahan	1628–1658	- Known for architecture. - Built the Taj Mahal, Red Fort, and Jama Masjid. - His reign is called the Golden Age of Mughal architecture.
Aurangzeb	1658–1707	- Expanded the empire to its largest size. - Followed strict Islamic laws. - Faced many revolts (Marathas, Sikhs, Rajputs). - His long wars weakened the empire.

1️⃣ Mansabdar

Meaning: An officer or noble in the Mughal army and administration.
Role:
- Appointed directly by the Emperor.
- Held a rank (mansab) which decided:
  - The number of soldiers he had to maintain.
  - His salary and position in court.
- The mansab system was a way to organise the army + administration.
Example: A Mansabdar with a rank of 5000 had to maintain 5000 soldiers for the emperor.

2️⃣ Jagirdar

Meaning: A person who was given the right to collect revenue from a particular piece of land (jagir) instead of getting a cash salary.
Role:
- Usually a Mansabdar was given a jagir to collect taxes from.
- The jagir was not owned by the Jagirdar — it was temporary, and the emperor could transfer it at any time.
Purpose:
- To pay the mansabdars by giving them control over land revenue rather than direct money.

3️⃣ Zamindar

Meaning: Local rural elites, landholders, or village chiefs.
Role:
- Collected taxes from peasants and gave them to the state (or Mughal officers).
- Often hereditary positions — they had strong influence in villages.
- In return, they kept a part of the revenue for themselves.
Under the Mughals:
- They acted as middlemen between the peasantry and the Mughal administration.

Who was Shershah Suri?

Sher Shah Suri, originally named Farid Khan, was an Afghan ruler who founded the Sur Empire in India. He defeated the Mughal emperor Humayun in 1540 and ruled North India until his death in 1545.

He was a strong administrator known for his efficient governance. He built the famous Grand Trunk Road, introduced the Rupiya (early rupee), improved the postal system, and reformed the land revenue system by measuring land and fixing fair taxes.

Sher Shah died in an accident during a battle in 1545, but his rule left a lasting impact on Indian administration.

Why Akbar is Called 'The Great'

Powerful Ruler
He ruled a large part of India and won many battles to expand his empire.
Religious Tolerance
He respected people of all religions—Hindus, Muslims, Jains, Christians, and others.
Abolished Unfair Taxes
He removed the jizya tax on non-Muslims and made the tax system fair.
Strong Administration
He divided the empire into parts (subas) and appointed honest officers to run them.
Encouraged Art and Learning
His court was full of great artists, musicians, and scholars. He built beautiful buildings like Fatehpur Sikri.
Started Din-i Ilahi
He tried to bring different religions together by creating a new spiritual path called Din-i Ilahi. (Religion of God)
Kind and Just Ruler
He listened to the problems of the people and ruled with fairness and care.
Followed Sulh-i-Kul
He believed in “peace with all”, meaning everyone should live together in harmony, no matter their religion or background.

The Akbarnama (“Book of Akbar”) was written by Abu’l Fazl, Akbar’s court historian, and it has three parts:

📜 1st Part – Akbar’s Ancestry and Early Life

Describes the history of the Mughal dynasty.
Covers Akbar’s family background, including Timur and Babur.
Talks about Akbar’s birth, childhood, and early reign.

📜 2nd Part – Events of Akbar’s Reign

Detailed chronological history of Akbar’s rule.
Records political events, wars, and administrative measures.
Includes Akbar’s conquests and expansion of the empire.

📜 3rd Part – Ain-i-Akbari

A separate section but considered the third part of Akbarnama.
Describes the administration, revenue system, military, culture, trade, and customs of the Mughal Empire.
Contains details of people, provinces, and rules during Akbar’s time.

FATEHPUR SIKRI

SULHI-I-KUL AND DIN ILAHI

Sulh-i-Kul

Meaning: "Peace with all"OR "Universal Peace"
Introduced by Akbar.
Based on tolerance and harmony among all religions.
All religions were respected and treated equally.
Helped bring unity in Akbar’s empire.

How it spread:

Akbar spread Sulh-i-Kul through his policies and actions:
- He abolished the jizya tax on non-Muslims.
- He gave important posts in his court to people of different religions (e.g., Rajputs).
- He held religious discussions in the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship).
- He promoted interfaith respect and ensured justice was equal for all.

Din-i-Ilahi

Meaning: "Religion of God"
Introduced in 1582 by Akbar.
A blend of good ideas from different religions.
Focused on ethical living, kindness, and loyalty to the emperor.
Only a few followers, and it disappeared after Akbar’s death.

The Mughal Empire in the 17th Century and After

Prosperity and Inequality

Mughal administration and military were efficient → led to economic and commercial prosperity.
International travellers described India as a land of wealth.
But poverty existed side by side with luxury → huge inequalities in society.

Mansabdars and Revenue

In the 20th year of Shah Jahan’s reign:
- Total mansabdars = 8,000.
- Highest-ranking mansabdars = 445 (only 5.6%).
- These 445 received 61.5% of total revenue as salaries.
They spent much of their income on salaries of soldiers and buying goods.
This benefited artisans and peasants, who supplied goods and produce.
But the peasants and poorer artisans had little left to invest in better tools or resources.
Wealthier peasants, artisans, merchants, and bankers gained more in this economy.

Decline of Mughal Authority

Enormous wealth and power made the Mughal elite very influential.
In the late 17th century, as Mughal emperors grew weaker, their nobles and governors became independent rulers.
Provinces like Hyderabad and Awadh became new centres of power.
These rulers still acknowledged the Mughal emperor in Delhi, but in reality, they acted independently.
By the 18th century, provinces consolidated into independent political identities.

Q1. The name of residence of Mughal Emperors in Delhi was

A. The Red Fort
B. The Old Fort.
C. The Siri Fort
D. None of these

Q2. Genghis Khan was a ruler of this tribe:

A. Turkish
B. Mongols
C. Huns
D. None of these

Q3. Which Mughal Emperor was defeated by Sher Shah Suri?

A. Babur
B. Humayun
C. Akbar
D. Jahangir

Q4. What is the ruling period of Jahangir?

A. 1526-1530 AD
B. 1530-1556 AD
C. 1556-1605 AD
D. 1605-1627 AD

Q5. Which Sikh Guru’s Martyrdom took place during Jahangir’s reign?

A. Guru Nanak Devji
B. Guru Gobind Singhji
C. Guru Arjun Devji
D. Guru Tegh Bahadur Ji

Q7. Rathor Rajput was related to

A. Marwar
B. Mewar
C. Amber
D. Ranthambore

The salary of the Mansabdars was called

A. Mansab
B. Jat
C. Jagir
D. Zabt

The literal meaning of Sulh-i kul is

A. Peace
B. Religion
C. Universal peace
D. Inheritance

What was the approximate number of mansabdars in Shah Jahan’s reign?

A. 6000
B. 4000
C. 8000
D. 10,000

The first war of Panipat was fought between ….?

A. Humayun and Ibraham Lodi
B. Akbar and Ibraham
C. Babur and ibrahim
D. Lodi Sher Khan and Ibraham Lodi

Who was the mother of Shah jahan?

A. Mewar Princess
B. Rajput princess
C. Bijapur princess
D. Rathore princess

Who wrote the Akbar nama ?

A. Abul Faizi
B. Abul Fazal
C. Todar mal
D. None

The interesting aspect about Ain i Akbari is …..?

A. Its pictorial details
B. Its ancestral details
C. Its administrative details
D. Its rich statistical details

What was Mansab system?

Answer: Mansab system was a grading system used by the Mughal rulers to fix the rank or salary of a Mansabdar, who were basically their military commanders

Why was it a difficult task for rulers of the Middle Ages to rule the Indian subcontinent?
Answer: It was because people of diverse backgrounds and cultures lived here.

Who was Genghis Khan?
Answer: He was the ruler of the Mongol tribes, China and Central Asia.

Who was Babur?
Answer: He was the first Mughal emperor and reigned from 1526 to 1530

Name the battlefield where Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by Babur?

Answer: Panipat.

To whom did Babur defeat at Chanderi? [V- Imp.]
Answer: Babur defeated the Rajputs at Chanderi

What do you mean by the rule of primogeniture? [V. Imp.]
Answer: Under the rule of primogeniture the eldest son inherited his father’s estate.

What was Timurid custom of coparcenary inheritance? [Imp.]
Answer: It was a division of the inheritance amongst all the sons.

What qualities of the Mughals enabled them to extend their influence over many kings and chieftains? [V. Imp.]
Answer: The careful balance between defeating but not humiliating their opponents enabled the Mughals to extend their influence over many kings and chieftains.

What does the term mansabdar refer to?
Answer: The term mansabdar refers to an individual who holds a mansab, te. a position or rank.

What was zat?
Answer: Mansabdar’s rank and salary were determined by a numerical value called zat The higher the zat, the mpre prestigious was the noble’s position in the court.

What was jagir?
Answer: Mansabdars received their salaries as revenue assignments known as jagirs.

What was zabt?
Answer: It was the revenue collected on the basis of .schedule of revenue rates for individuals crops.

Write short notes on Akbar’s religious policy.

Answer: Akbar’s liberal religious views and his marriage with the Rajput princess influenced his religious outlook. He used to hold talks with the leaders of various religions. He also built a building called Ibadat Khana at Agra to hold discussions with the religious leaders. Views were exchanged freely. He also introduced the policy of sulh-i kul. This idea of tolerance focused on honesty, justice, and peace that were universally applicable.Akbar found that all religions taught similar ideology. Thus he incorporated the principles of all the religions to found a new faith which he named Din-i-Illahi.’Din-i-Illahi’ did not attract many converts and it perished with the death of Akbar.

Write short notes on the religious policies of the Akbar.

Answer: Akbar’s religious policy:

He followed a liberal religious policy. Full religious freedom was allowed not only to the Hindus but also to the people of other religious faith. Also, He built a building called ‘Ibadat Khana’ where he held discussions with the religious leaders.

Which principle of inheritance did Mughal’s follow? How was it different from the principle that other communities follow?

Answer: The other communities followed the tradition of Primogeniture under which eldest son inherited all his parent’s property and the right to rule, but Mughal’s followed the principle of Timurid custom of coparcenary whereby there was a joint heir to an undivided property.

How were the Mughals greater than their predecessors?

Answer: Unlike their predecessors, the Mughals created a huge empire and accomplished what had hitherto seemed possible for only short periods of time. From the latter half of the 16th century they expanded their kingdom from Agra and Delhi until in the 17th century they controlled nearly all the subcontinent. They imposed structures of administrations and ideas of governance that outlasted their rule, leaving a political legacy that succeeding rulers of the subcontinent could not overlook.

How did Babur become the ruler of Delhi?

Answer: Babur succeeded to the throne of Ferghana in 1494 when he was only 12 years old. However, he had to leave his ancestral throne due to the invasion of the uzbegs, a Mongol group. Babur wandered for several years. Then in the year 1504 he seized Kabul. In 1526 he defeated the Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi, at the battle of Panipat. Thus, he captured Delhi where he laid the foundation of the Mughal Empire. He became the first Mughal emperor and ruled from 1526 to 1530.

Who were Mansabdars?

Answer: The term ‘mansabdar’ refers to an individual who holds a mansab, meaning a ‘position or rank’. It was a grading system used by the Mughals to fix the rank, salary and military responsibilities. Rank and salary were determined by a numerical value called ‘zat’. The higher the ‘zat’, the more prestigious was the noble’s position in court and was larger his salary. ‘Mansabdars’ received their salaries as revenue assignments called ‘jagirs’ which were somewhat like iqtas.

What were the main features of Sulh-i Kul? [Imp.]

The idea of Sulh-i Kul was introduced by Akbar, the Great. Sulh-i Kul meant universal peace. Its main features are given below :

The idea of Sul-i Kul was based on the idea of tolerance which did not discriminate between the people of different religions in Akbar’s realm.
It focused on a system of ethics—honesty, justice, peace. These values were universally applicable.

Describe the Mansabdari or the Jagirdari system of Mughal India.

Answer: Turkish Nobles, Indian Muslims, Afghans and Rajputs joined the Mughal services as mansabdars. Amansabdar refers to an individual who holds a mansab, meaning a rank or a position used by the Mughals to fix rank, salary and military responsibility of the individual. His military responsibility required him to maintain a specified number of sawar or cavalrymen. His salary was determined by the numerical value ofzat. The higher the numerical value of zat, the higher was his salary and position in court.Mansabdars received their salaries as revenue assignments called Jagirs. They did not actually reside in their Jagirs but appointed servants to collect revenues from the people. They even got paid on the quality of horses that they maintained.

Give an account of Todar Mai’s revenue system?

Answer: Todar Mai was Akbar’s revenue minister. He carried out a careful survey of crop yields, prices and areas cultivated for a 10-year period, 1570-1580. On the basis of this data, tax was fixed on each crop in cash.

Each province was divided into revenue circles with its own schedule of revenue rates for individual crops. This revenue system came to be known as zabt. This system was prevalent in those areas where Mughal administrators could survey the land and keep careful accounts.

Give an account of Akbar Nama and Ain-i Akbari.

Answer: Abul Fazl, one of Akbar’s close friends and courtiers, wrote a three-volume history of the reign of Akbar. It was titled as Akbar Nama. The first volume dealt with Akbar’s ancestors and the second volume recorded the events of Akbar’s reign. Ain-i Akbari is the third volume. It deals with Akbar’s administration, household, army, the revenues and the geography of his empire. The book also provides details about the traditions and cultures of the people living in India. The most interesting aspect about Ain-i Akbari is its rich statistical details about things as diverse as crops, yields, prices, wages and revenues.

Write in brief about the Mughal Empire in the 17th century and afterwards.

The influence and power of the Mughals were at the height during the 17th century.

The effect of their administrative and military efficiency brought great economic and commercial prosperity in the Empire.

They had huge treasure of wealth.

They led highly luxurious life. But the common mass had to face the curse of poverty.

The Mughal emperors and their mansabdars spend a great deal of their income on salaries and goods.

The poorest among them led a very miserable life. It was not possible for them to invest in additional resources like tools and supplies in order to increase productivity.

However, the wealthier peasantry and artisanal groups, the merchants and bankers profited in this economic world.

The Mughal elites exercised a great deal of power in the late 17th century. With the decline of the Mughal power and influence, many nobles became independent.

They constituted new dynasties and held command of provinces, such as Hyderabad and Awadh.

NOTES: THE MUGHALS-16^TH TO 17^TH CENTURY

Q1. Who Were the Mughals?

The Mughals were a powerful Muslim dynasty that ruled most of India from 1526 to 1857. They are remembered for their strong government, magnificent architecture like the Taj Mahal, rich culture, and promotion of art and learning.

They were of Turko-Mongol origin, originally from Central Asia. On their father’s side, they were descendants of Timur (Tamerlane), and on their mother’s side, they were connected to Genghis Khan. Since Genghis Khan’s name was linked with bloodshed, they avoided being called Mongols.

Q2. How did Babur become the ruler of Delhi?

Babur became ruler of Delhi after many struggles. He lost his ancestral kingdom in Ferghana (Uzbekistan) at the age of 12 due to the Uzbegs but later seized Kabul in 1504. In 1526, Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat and captured Delhi. This victory marked the beginning of the Mughal Empire. He ruled from 1526 to 1530 as its founder.

Q3. How were the Mughals greater than their predecessors?

Unlike earlier rulers, the Mughals created a vast and powerful empire. From the mid-16th to the 17th century, they expanded from Agra and Delhi to control almost the whole subcontinent. They built a strong administration, efficient revenue system, and promoted art and culture. Their legacy of governance and architecture lasted long after their decline, influencing later kingdoms and rulers.

Q4. Write short notes on Akbar’s Religious Policy?

Akbar followed a liberal religious policy. He married a Rajput princess, allowed freedom of worship to all, and held discussions with scholars of different religions in the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship). He introduced Sulh-i Kul, meaning universal peace, which stressed honesty, justice, and tolerance. Akbar also started a new faith called Din-i-Ilahi, which combined principles from many religions, but it did not gain many followers.

Q5. Which principle of inheritance did the Mughals follow? How was it different from others?

Most communities followed primogeniture, where the eldest son inherited the throne and property. The Mughals, however, followed the Timurid custom of coparcenary, where all sons shared equal rights to the throne and property. This often caused wars of succession among Mughal princes. Unlike primogeniture, this method created frequent conflicts but also kept the empire’s resources jointly controlled.

Q6. Who were the Mansabdars?

A mansabdar was an officer in the Mughal administration who held a mansab (rank). The Mansabdari system fixed rank, salary, and military duties. Their rank was measured by zat—the higher the zat, the higher the salary and position. They maintained cavalry (sawar) for the emperor. Mansabdars were paid through jagirs (land revenue assignments). This system kept nobles loyal and gave the Mughals a strong army.

Q7. What were the main features of Sulh-i Kul?

Sulh-i Kul, or universal peace, was Akbar’s policy of tolerance. It treated all religions equally and promoted honesty, justice, and peace. This policy ensured harmony among Hindus, Muslims, and others in the empire. It became the guiding principle of Akbar’s rule and helped him win the loyalty of his diverse subjects.

Q8. Describe the Mansabdari or Jagirdari system.

The Mansabdari system was Akbar’s method of organizing officials. Mansabdars included Turkish nobles, Rajputs, Afghans, and Indian Muslims. They held ranks that decided their salaries and number of soldiers. They received salaries through jagirs (land revenue assignments). Although they did not live in their jagirs, they collected taxes through agents. They had to maintain good cavalry and horses for the emperor, making the Mughal army strong.

Q9. Give an account of Todar Mal’s revenue system.

Raja Todar Mal, Akbar’s finance minister, introduced the zabt system. He surveyed crop yields, prices, and cultivated land over ten years (1570–1580). Based on this, fixed tax rates were set for different crops, payable in cash. Each province was divided into revenue circles. This fair system increased efficiency, reduced corruption, and provided steady income to the Mughal treasury.

Q10. Give an account of Akbar Nama and Ain-i Akbari.

Abul Fazl, Akbar’s court historian, wrote the Akbar Nama in three volumes. The first volume described Akbar’s ancestors, the second detailed events of Akbar’s reign, and the third, called the Ain-i Akbari, recorded Akbar’s administration, army, revenues, and empire’s geography. It also gave details of Indian society, traditions, crops, wages, and prices. The book is valuable for understanding Mughal governance and culture.

Q11. Write in brief about the Mughal Empire in the 17th century and afterwards.

The Mughal Empire was at its peak in the 17th century. Its efficient administration brought prosperity, and rulers lived luxuriously. However, common peasants often remained poor. Wealthy merchants, bankers, and artisans benefited from trade. By the late 17th century, Mughal power declined, and many nobles became independent, founding new kingdoms such as Hyderabad and Awadh. Despite decline, the Mughal legacy in art, architecture, and governance remained influential.

12. What were the differences between Mansabdars and Zamindars during Mughal Rule?

Aspect	Mansabdars	Zamindars
Position	Officials/nobles in Mughal service with ranks (mansabs)	Local landholders, hereditary chiefs, or peasant leaders
Duties	Maintain soldiers and cavalry for the emperor; serve in administration and army	Collect revenue from peasants and hand over to the state
Payment	Paid through jagirs (land revenue assignments)	Kept a share of revenue collected as their income
Control	Directly appointed and controlled by the emperor	Local influence, often hereditary power

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