DELHI: 12TH TO 15TH CENTURY
Tomar Dynasty (around 8th–12th century CE)
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The Tomars were Rajput rulers who founded the city of Delhi (earlier called Dhillika).
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Anangpal Tomar is believed to have built the city of Delhi in the 11th century.
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The Tomars made Delhi a strong and well-defended city.
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They controlled trade routes and collected taxes from traders passing through.
Chauhan Dynasty (around 12th century CE)
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The Chauhans (also Rajputs) defeated the Tomars and took control of Delhi.
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Prithviraj Chauhan was the most famous ruler of this dynasty.
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He ruled from Delhi and Ajmer.
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He fought against Muhammad Ghori in the First and Second Battles of Tarain (1191 and 1192).
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He won the first battle but lost the second, after which the Delhi Sultanate began.
Why Delhi Became a Centre of Power?
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📍 Good Location
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In North India
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Close to rivers and trade routes
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Easy to connect Punjab and Gangetic plains
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🛡️ Strong Forts
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Tomars and Chauhans built strong forts
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Hard for enemies to attack
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💰 Rich and Busy City
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Important centre for trade
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Many markets and people lived there
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👑 Good for Ruling
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Rulers could easily expand their kingdom from Delhi
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That’s why rulers like Qutb-ud-din Aibak made it their capital
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Who Were the Delhi Sultans?
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The Delhi Sultans were Muslim rulers who ruled parts of northern India from the early 13th century to the early 16th century.
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They established their rule after invading India from regions like Afghanistan, Persia (Iran), and Central Asia.
🚪 How Did They Come to India?
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Many came as invaders through the northwestern passes (like the Khyber Pass).
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They defeated local kings and set up their own rule.
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Some first came as generals or military commanders and later became rulers.
❓ Why Did They Come to India?
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Wealth: India was rich in gold, land, and resources.
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Power: They wanted to expand their kingdoms.
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Religion: Some also came with the idea of spreading Islam.
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Political opportunity: After the fall of many Indian kingdoms, India was easy to conquer.
🏰 Major Dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate:
Dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate
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🏛️ Contributions of the Delhi Sultans:
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Built mosques, forts, and tombs (like Qutb Minar, Alai Darwaza)
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Introduced new administrative systems
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Encouraged Persian language and culture
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Improved trade and economy
🛡️ End of the Delhi Sultanate:
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In 1526, Babur (a Central Asian ruler) defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the Battle of Panipat.
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This marked the end of the Delhi Sultanate and the beginning of the Mughal Empire.
Delhi
Who was Rudrama Devi?
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She ruled during the 13th century (around 1261–1289 CE).
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Belonged to the Kakatiya Dynasty, with her capital at Warangal (in present-day Telangana).
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She was the daughter of King Ganapati Deva, who had no sons, so he chose her as his successor.
- Didda of Kashmir was a powerful and intelligent queen who ruled Kashmir in the 10th century.
- Lived: Around 958–1003 CE
- Title: Known as the Queen of Kashmir
- Family: Granddaughter of a Hindu Shahi ruler (from present-day Afghanistan)
- Marriage: Married to King Kshemagupta of Kashmir
1. Efficient Administration
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A strong centralized administration with the Sultan at the top.
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Provinces were governed by muqtis or governors through the iqta system.
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Appointed accountants kept checks on revenue collection.
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Important taxes:
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Kharaj: Tax on cultivation (up to 50% of produce).
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Jizya: Tax on non-Muslims.
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Taxes on cattle and houses.
- Encouraged trade and market regulation.
2. Hierarchical Social Structure
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Society was strictly divided:
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Sultan and nobility
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Military commanders and high officials
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Merchants, artisans
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Peasants and labourers
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Slaves (used in administration and military).
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Social mobility was rare; birth and gender often determined one’s position.
3. Religious Policy
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The Sultanate was a theocratic state, guided by Islamic laws (Sharia).
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Sultans supported Islamic scholars and institutions.
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Jizya tax was imposed on Hindus, though many Sultans showed religious tolerance.
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Sufi saints spread Islamic teachings peacefully and encouraged harmony.
4. Architecture and Monuments
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Emergence of Indo-Islamic architecture blending Indian and Islamic styles.
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Key features: arches, domes, minarets, calligraphy, red sandstone, marble.
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Famous structures:
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Qutub Minar
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Alai Darwaza
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Tughlaqabad Fort
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Mosques and tombs with Persian inscriptions.
5. Art and Culture
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Persian was the official court and administrative language.
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Flourishing of literature in Persian, Arabic, and emerging regional languages like Hindi, Bengali, Marathi, and Punjabi.
Tawarikh: Persian histories written by learned men like poets, administrators, and courtiers.
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Rise of historians like Zia-ud-din Barani and Minhaj-i-Siraj.
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Amir Khusrau – legendary poet and musician who introduced new musical instruments (Sitar, Tabla) and styles (Qawwali). Father of Urdu Literature
6. Military Power
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Maintained a large standing army, especially during Mongol threats.
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Use of slave soldiers (bandagan) and clients of humble origin as generals and governors.
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Frequent military campaigns to expand and consolidate territory.
INTERESTING FACT: Muhammad bin Tughlaq shifted the capital to Daulatabad because it was safer, more central, and closer to the Deccan, but the plan failed due to poor planning and hardship for the people.
Additional Information
Challenges to Social Norms
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Example: Raziyya Sultan (1236) – daughter of Iltutmish, became Sultan due to her capabilities.
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Chronicler Minhaj-i-Siraj acknowledged her merit but disapproved of a woman ruler.
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Nobles opposed her rule; she was removed in 1240.
Use of Slaves and Clients
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Delhi Sultans preferred appointing bandagan (military slaves) and clients of humble birth to key positions.
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This shocked elite groups and was criticized in Persian histories.
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These individuals were loyal to rulers but not to their heirs, causing political instability during succession.
Governance through Iqtas
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Iqtas: Territories assigned to military commanders (muqtis) in return for service.
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Muqtis collected revenue and paid soldiers.
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Their positions were non-hereditary and temporary.
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Accountants monitored their revenue collections to prevent misuse.
Centralisation of Revenue
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Alauddin Khalji took full control over revenue assessment and collection.
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Rights of local chiefs to collect taxes were cancelled.
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Some landlords became official tax assessors and collectors under the Sultanate.
Taxes Imposed
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Three main types:
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Kharaj – Tax on cultivation (about 50% of produce).
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Tax on cattle
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Tax on houses
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. Limited Control over Distant Regions
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Areas like Bengal, South India, and forested Gangetic plains remained mostly out of direct control.
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Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq could control these regions only for short periods.
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Local chieftains often ruled these remote areas.
. Mongol Threat
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1219: Genghis Khan invaded north-east Iran; Mongol attacks soon reached Delhi Sultanate.
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During Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq, attacks increased.
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Sultans maintained a large standing army in Delhi, which posed major administrative challenges.
1. Which ruler first established his or her capital in Delhi?
Answer: Anangpal Tomar of the Tomar dynasty (a Rajput ruler) first established his capital in Delhi.
2. What was the language of administration under the Delhi Sultans?
Answer: The language of administration under the Delhi Sultans was Persian.
3. In whose reign did the Sultanate reach its farthest extent?
Answer: The Sultanate reached its farthest extent during the reign of Muhammad Tughluq, who expanded it across a large part of the Indian subcontinent by defeating rival armies and seizing new territories.
4. From which country did Ibn Battuta travel to India?
Answer: Ibn Battuta was a 14th-century traveller who came to India from Morocco, a country in North Africa.
5. According to the “circle of justice”, why was it important for military commanders to keep the interests of the peasantry in mind?
Answer: According to the “circle of justice”, the military commanders' salaries came from the revenue collected from peasants. Peasants could pay taxes only if they were prosperous and content. Therefore, it was essential for commanders to ensure justice and good governance for the well-being of the peasantry.
6. What is meant by the “internal” and “external” frontiers of the Sultanate?
Answer:
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The internal frontiers of the Sultanate referred to the areas near Delhi that were brought under control. The forests in these regions were cleared, and farmers were made to settle there so that the land could be used for farming and taxes could be collected.
The external frontiers referred to the areas far from Delhi, especially in the southern part of India, where the rulers sent their armies to expand the empire. These military campaigns started during the rule of Alauddin Khalji and continued under Muhammad Tughluq.
7. What were the steps taken to ensure that muqtis performed their duties? Why might they have wanted to defy the Sultan’s orders?
Answer:
Steps taken:
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Muqtis were appointed for short periods and were regularly transferred.
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Their positions were not made hereditary.
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State-appointed accountants checked revenue collection and troop maintenance.
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They were only allowed to collect taxes approved by the state.
They might have wanted to defy the orders because they held military power and controlled revenue sources, which could tempt them to become independent or misuse their authority.
8. What was the impact of the Mongol invasions on the Delhi Sultanate?
Answer:
The Mongol invasions had a serious impact on the Delhi Sultanate. To protect the empire:
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New garrison towns like Siri (by Alauddin Khalji) and Daulatabad (by Muhammad Tughluq) were built to station soldiers.
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The Sultanate collected heavy taxes from fertile regions like the Ganga-Yamuna doab to maintain a strong army.
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Alauddin Khalji paid his soldiers in cash instead of land, ensuring their loyalty.
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Muhammad Tughluq introduced a token currency made of cheap metals to manage expenses, but it failed.
1: Delhi was made capital by the rulers of__________.
Answer: Tomar dynasty
2: Mughal emperor Humayun, was defeated by_______.
Answer: Sher shah
3: Who was the founder of the Sayyed dynasty?
Answer: Khizr Khan
4: Timur attacked India in 1398 AD and later defeated Tughlaqs. True/False
Answer: True
5: Kharaj was a tax on cultivation. True/False
Answer: True
6: How many taxes were levied by the Delhi Sultans?
Answer: Three types of taxes imposed by the Sultans of Delhi were kharaj, Jizya, Tax on Cattles
8: During whose reign Sultanate faced maximum Mongol invasion?
Answer: Alauddin Khalji
9: Who invaded Southern India for the first time?
Answer: Alauddin Khalji
10: Delhi achieved the status of capital for the first time under the rule of ____________.
Answer: Tomara Rajputs
11: What was the term ‘iqta’stood for, during the Sultanate period?
Answer: land assigned to military commanders.
12: The Chauhan dynasty which ruled Delhi from 1165 came to power after defeating ____________.
Answer: Tomaras
13: Alauddin Khilji established a separate department to carry out the assessment and collection of the land revenue. True/False
Answer: True
15: Who abolished Iqta?
Answer: Alaud din Khilji
16: Ibn Battuta belonged to Persia?
Answer: No, Morocco
18: Name the Ruler who has shifted capital from Delhi to Daultabad.
Answer: Muhammad Tughlaq
19: A type of coin minted at Delhi is known as the __________.
Answer: The Dehliwal type
20: Who defeated the Tomars and took control over Delhi?
Answer: Chouhans
21: When did Raziya Sultan lost the control of Delhi?
Answer: 1240 AD.
22: Name the main mosque of Jahanpanah.
Answer: Begumpuri mosque
23: The Quwat-al-Islam is located in__________.
Answer: Delhi
24: Under whose reign the system of Iqtadari was thoroughly modernized?
Answer: Muhammad Tughlaq.
25: What was the another name for Iqtadars?
Answer: Muktis
26: A token currency similar to today’s paper currency was released during the reign of ___________.
Answer:Muhammad Tughlaq.
27: The holders of Iqta were known as ____________.
Answer: Iltutmish
28: During whose reign the system of bandagan came into existence?
Answer: Iqtadars
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31: Who founded the City of Jahanpanah called the “Refuge of the World”in 1326–1327 CE?
Answer: Muhammed Tughlaq
32: Who modernized the iqta system?
Answer: Alauddin Khalji
34: Name the ruler who made the state directly responsible for the collection of land revenue.
Answer: Allauddin Khalji
35: Name a famous traveler who came from the country of Morocco in the fourteenth century.
Answer: Ibn batuta
36. What is the time of rule of Ananga Pala?
Answer: 1130 -1145
37. What was the other name for Iqtadar?
Answer: The other name for Iqtadar is muqti.
39. What was the language of administration under the Delhi Sultans?
Answer: Persian was the language of administration under the Delhi Sultans.
40. For how many years Suri dynasty ruled?
The Suri dynasty ruled for only fifteen years (1540-1555).
Short Answer
Why did the authors of Persian tawarikh criticise the Delhi Sultans?
Answer: The authors of Persian tawarikh criticised the Delhi Sultans for appointing the “low and base-born” to high offices.
Define the term iqta, iqtadar or muqti.
Like the earlier Sultans, the Khalji and Tughluq monarchs appointed military commanders as governors of territories of varying sizes. These lands were called iqta and their holder was called iqtadar or muqti.
What is meant by the “internal” and “external” frontiers of the Sultanate?
Internal frontiers of the Sultanate were the areas inside their kingdom but far away from big cities, like the villages near army camps.
External frontiers were the lands outside their kingdom that they had not yet captured, like parts of Southern India.
According to the “Circle of Justice”, why was it important for military commanders to keep the interests of the peasantry in mind?
According to the “Circle of Justice”, it was important for military commanders to keep the interests of the peasantry in mind because soldiers’ salaries come from the revenue collected from peasants and peasants can pay revenue only when they are prosperous and happy.
. List the five dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate?
The five dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate are:
Early Turkish Rulers 1206- 1290
Khalji Dynasty 1290 – 1320
Tughluq Dynasty 1320 – 1414
Sayyid Dynasty 1414 – 1451
Lodi Dynasty 1451 – 1526
Why the early Delhi Sultans, especially Iltutmish, favoured their special slaves, Bandagans, purchased for military service?
The early Delhi Sultans, especially Iltutmish, favoured their special slaves purchased for military service because they were carefully trained to man some of the most important political offices in the kingdom. Since they were totally dependent upon their master, the Sultan could trust and rely upon them.
Why do you think Ziyauddin Barani criticised the Sultan?
Sultan Muhammad Tughluq appointed Aziz Khummar, a wine distiller, Firuz Hajjam, a barber, Mank a Tabbakh, a cook, and two gardeners, Ladha and Pira, to high administrative posts. Ziyauddin Barani, a midfourteenth century-chronicler, reported their appointments as a sign of the Sultan’s loss of political judgement and his incapacity to rule.
Who was Raziyya? Why was she removed from the throne?
Raziyya was Sultan Iltutmish’s daughter. In 1236 she became Sultan. The chronicler of the age, Minhaj-i Siraj, recognised that she was more able and qualified than all her brothers. But he was not comfortable at having a queen as ruler. Nor were the nobles happy at her attempts to rule independently. So, she was removed from the throne in 1240.
Write a short note on the ‘Token Currency System’ introduced by Muhammad Tughlaq.
Muhammad Tughluq also paid his soldiers cash salaries. But instead of controlling prices, he used a “token” currency, somewhat like present-day paper currency, but made out of cheap metals, not gold and silver. People in the fourteenth century did not trust these coins. They were very smart: they saved their gold and silver coins and paid all their taxes to the state with this token currency. This cheap currency could also be counterfeited easily.
Write about the authors of tawarikh in brief.
The authors of tawarikh lived in cities (mainly Delhi) and hardly ever in villages.
They often wrote their histories for Sultans in the hope of rich rewards.
These authors advised rulers on the need to preserve an “ideal” social order based on birthright and gender distinctions.
Their ideas were not shared by everybody.
Describe the ways in which the chieftains arranged for their defence.
Chieftains sometimes fortified themselves in mountains, in rocky, uneven and rugged places as well as in bamboo groves. In India the bamboo is not hollow; it is big. Its several parts are so intertwined that even fire cannot affect them, and they are on the whole very strong. The chieftains live in these forests which serve them as ramparts, inside which are their cattle and their crops. There is also water for them within, that is, rain water which collects there. Hence they cannot be subdued except by powerful armies, who entering these forests, cut down the bamboos with specially prepared instruments.”
Write a note on ‘internal frontier’ and ‘external frontier’.
Answer: The first set of campaigns along the “internal frontier” of the Sultanate aimed at consolidating the hinterlands of the garrison towns. During these campaigns forests were cleared in the Ganga-Yamuna doab and hunter gatherers and pastoralists expelled from their habitat. These lands were given to peasants and agriculture was encouraged. New fortresses and towns were established to protect trade routes and to promote regional trade.
The second expansion occurred along the “external frontier” of the Sultanate. Military expeditions into southern India started during the reign of Alauddin Khalji and culminated with Muhammad Tughluq. In their campaigns, Sultanate armies captured elephants, horses and slaves and carried away precious metals.
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