KINGS AND KINGDOMS

In ancient times, India as a single country did not exist the way we know it today. Instead, the region was made up of many kingdoms, cultures, and peoples spread across a large area of South Asia.
1. 🏙️ Mahajanapadas (c. 600 BCE – 322 BCE)

India was divided into 16 major kingdoms or republics called Mahajanapadas. Some important Mahajanapadas:

Magadha (very powerful, located in present-day Bihar)
Kosala
Vatsa
Avanti
Kashi

Rulers of Nanda Dynasty ruled just before Chandragupta Maurya.

Parts of northwest India were briefly ruled by Persians and Greeks.

One of the earliest great empires was the Mauryan Empire (c. 322 BCE – 185 BCE), founded by Chandragupta Maurya and made famous by Ashoka, who promoted peace and the teachings of Buddhism after the Kalinga War.

After the fall of the Mauryas, many small kingdoms rose and fell. Later, the Gupta Empire (c. 320 CE–550 CE) became a major power. Under rulers like Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II, the Gupta period is remembered as a Golden Age of Indian culture, science, literature, and art.

However, by the 6th century, the Gupta Empire began to weaken due to invasions and internal problems, leading to the rise of smaller kingdoms and regional powers across the subcontinent.

By the 7th century, India no longer had a single powerful empire. Instead, regional dynasties like the Chalukyas in the Deccan, the Pallavas in Tamil Nadu, and the Pushyabhutis in north India (under Harshavardhana) began to rule their areas. These changes set the stage for the emergence of new kings and kingdoms across India, each with its own ambitions and style of rule.

What was happening in the 7th century in India?

During the seventh century, India was not ruled by one king or empire.
Instead, different regions had large landowners or powerful warrior leaders.
These people were often accepted as samantas (which means subordinates or assistants) by the main king or emperor.

🛡️ Who were the Samantas?

Samantas were landowners or military leaders.
They were not kings, but they ruled smaller areas or villages under the control of a bigger king or emperor.
They gave military help, collected taxes, and helped in administration.

In return, they were allowed to keep their lands and enjoy power and respect in their local region.
At first, they served under a king.
But many of them grew powerful and started to act like independent rulers.

👑 Example: Rashtrakutas

In Deccan (South India), the Rashtrakutas were originally subordinates to the Chalukyas of Karnataka.
But in the 8th century, a Rashtrakuta leader named Dantidurga became strong.
He defeated his overlord (Chalukya ruler) and declared independence.

🔱 Ritual: Hiranya-garbha

Dantidurga performed a ritual called hiranya-garbha, meaning “golden womb”.
This ritual was performed with the help of Brahmanas (priests).
It was believed that through this ritual, a man could be “reborn” as a Kshatriya (warrior class), even if he was not born in that caste.
This helped him gain respect and recognition as a ruler.

Why was it performed?

In ancient India, society was divided into varnas (castes), and only Kshatriyas had the right to rule as kings.
Some powerful people (like Dantidurga of the Rashtrakutas) were not born Kshatriyas, but wanted to become kings.
So they performed Hiranya-Garbha, a special religious ritual with the help of Brahmanas (priests).
The overlord would give a lot of gold to the Brahmanas.
He would sit inside a golden pot (symbolically a womb) and was ritually "reborn".

After the ceremony, he was socially accepted as a Kshatriya and a rightful ruler.
It was believed that through this ritual, the person would be reborn as a Kshatriya.

Also, some ambitious people used their fighting skills to become kings. For example, Mayurasharman of the Kadamba dynasty and Harichandra of the Gurjara Pratihara dynasty were Brahmanas who left their priestly duties and became successful warriors.

Administration in the Kingdoms

The king was the head of the kingdom and took all major decisions.

He led the army, collected taxes, and protected the people.

Kings adopted grand titles such as:

Maharaja-Adhiraja – means "great king, lord of kings"

Tribhuvana-Chakravartin – means "lord of the three worlds"

Kings collected resources from:

Farmers, herders, and craftsmen.

Merchants (through taxes and trade duties)

(They were often forced or persuaded to give part of their produce.)

These payments were sometimes called "rent", as kings or lords claimed ownership of land.

These resources were used to run the king’s court and palace and for building temples and forts. They were also used to fight wars to acquire wealth in the form of plunder and access land as well as trade routes.

Officials in charge of collecting income were generally recruited from influential families, and positions were often hereditary. That was true for the military, too. In many cases, the king's relatives performed these functions.

Prashastis and Land Grants

📜 Prashastis (Inscriptions of Praise)

Composed by learned Brahmanas, sometimes involved in administration.
Aimed to praise the ruler, not always factually true.
Described rulers as brave, victorious, and ideal kings.
Served to build the king’s image and legacy.

🌾 Land Grants

Kings rewarded Brahmanas with land grants.
These grants were recorded on copper plates.
The copper plates were handed over to the receiver of the land.
Land grants gave Brahmanas economic power and social status.

📖 Kalhana’s Rajatarangini (12th century Kashmir)

A long Sanskrit poem written by Kalhana.
Described the history of Kashmir's rulers.
Different from typical prashastis: Kalhana was critical of kings and their policies.
He used multiple sources: inscriptions, documents, eyewitness accounts, and earlier histories.

WARFARE FOR WEALTH

PADMANAMASWAMI-VIDEO

For centuries Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta and Pala’s dynasties fought for control over Kannauj.

The long drawn conflict is known as a tripartite struggle as three parties were involved in it.

Kannauj was important for its political power, wealth, and location in the Ganga-Yamuna region.

The struggle involved repeated invasions and shifting control of Kannauj.

Main rulers involved:

Dharmapala (Pala dynasty)
Mihir Bhoja (Pratihara dynasty)
Govinda III (Rashtrakuta dynasty)

Rulers also tried to demonstrate their power and resources by building large temples.

Hence, when they attacked one another’s kingdoms, they often chose to target temples, which were sometimes extremely rich.

In early medieval India, rulers built large temples not just for religious purposes but also to show their power, wealth, and devotion. These temples were often:

Centers of wealth, as they received donations of gold, land, and jewels.

Places where kings were celebrated as protectors of religion (Dharma).

Hence, when they attacked one another’s kingdoms, they often chose to target temples, which were sometimes extremely rich.

Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni attacked and looted the Somnath temple in Gujarat for its wealth and religious importance.

Mahmud's main aim was plunder — to loot the rich temples and take back gold, jewels, and treasures to make Ghazni (in present-day Afghanistan) a magnificent capital.
The Chahamanas (Chauhans) of Delhi and Ajmer tried to expand westward, which brought them into conflict with the Chalukyas of Gujarat and Gahadavalas of western Uttar Pradesh.

The best-known Chahamana ruler was Prithviraja III (1168-1192).
As these dynasties were regional powers, clashes for land and control were common.

Rise and Expansion of the Chola Empire

Brigadeeswara Temples

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l6fyPpACKP4

The Cholas were an ancient South Indian dynasty, originally ruling a small region around Uraiyur near present-day Tiruchirappalli in Tamil Nadu.

For a time, they were less powerful and lived under the rule of the Pallavas and later the Muttaraiyar, who controlled the Kaveri delta region.

🔥

Vijayalaya Chola (Mid-9th Century) – The Founder of Chola Power

Vijayalaya, a member of the ancient Chola family, defeated the Muttaraiyar and took control of the Kaveri delta.
He built the city of Thanjavur and a temple for goddess Nishumbhasudini (Durga) there.
Thanjavur became the hub of Chola administration, art, and architecture
This marked the real beginning of the Chola Empire.

Vijayalaya's successors like Aditya I and Parantaka I expanded the kingdom by defeating the Pallavas (to the north) and the Pandyas (to the south).

The Cholas became a dominant power in South India.

Conquest and Expansion

Vijayalaya's successors like Aditya I and Parantaka I expanded the kingdom by defeating the Pallavas (to the north) and the Pandyas (to the south).
The Cholas became a dominant power in South India.

👑 Rajaraja I (985–1014 CE) – The Great Ruler

One of the greatest Chola kings, Rajaraja I, expanded the empire significantly.
He conquered:

Parts of Kerala, Sri Lanka and Maldives
Southern Deccan regions

He had a strong naval fleet and efficient administartive system.
He built the famous Brihadeshwara Temple at Thanjavur (UNESCO site today).
He also reorganized the administration, improving tax collection, land records, and local governance.

🌊 Rajendra Chola I (1014–1044 CE) – The Naval Conqueror

Son of Rajaraja I, he was equally powerful.
He led naval expeditions to:
- Ganga Valley (northern India) – even brought Ganga water and built Gangaikonda Cholapuram ( the city of the Chola who conquered the Ganga) as a symbol of his victory in some parts of North India Ganga region.
- Sri Lanka, Andaman-Nicobar Islands
- Southeast Asia – such as parts of Malaysia and Indonesia
The Cholas became a maritime power with a strong navy.

Rajendra Chola III was the last ruler of the Chola dynasty. His reign marked the final phase of the Chola Empire, which faced significant pressure from the Pandyas.

⚖️ Administration and Society

Cholas had a well-organized system:

Divided into provinces called mandalams ,nadus (districts) and kottams
Villages had local assemblies (sabhas), especially in Brahmana villages to discuss local matters such as such as irrigation, land revenue, and law and order.
Village assemblies in non-Brahmana (common peasant) villages had assemblies like Ur who handled daily administration, tax collection, and justice.
These handled daily administration, tax collection, and justice.
Inscriptions on temple walls give us detailed records of their rule.
Vellala (rich peasants) played a big role in managing resources and justice of nadu.
They worked under the guidance of the central Chola officials.
With the help of such administration, they constructed roads, temples and proper irrigation systems.
They had a sophisticated system of revenue collection, effective naval force and effecient military organization.
The Chola economy was primarily supported by the cotton trade, a significant wealth source.
Association of traders known as Nagaram was also occasionally performed adminitrative functions in towns.

Splendid Temples and Bronze Sculptures – Chola Period

The big temples at Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram were built by Rajaraja Chola and Rajendra Chola.

These are known for their amazing architecture and sculptures.

Temples were not just places for worship.

They became the center of village life, where towns grew around them.

Kings and others donated land to temples.

Crops grown on this land helped support temple workers like priests, musicians, dancers, cooks, and sweepers.

emples played an important role in social, cultural, and economic life of the people.

One important craft was making bronze images.

Chola bronze statues are among the finest in the world.

Agriculture and Irrigation

River Kaveri branched into many channels, depositing fertile soil and providing water for rice farming.

From the 5th–6th century, this region saw large-scale cultivation.

Forests were cleared and land was levelled to expand farming.

In the delta region, embankments were built to stop floods and canals were made to carry water.

Two crops were often grown in a year.

Irrigation was essential – using wells, canals, and large rainwater tanks.

Irrigation required planning – organizing labour, maintaining systems, and sharing water fairly. Wells were dug, huge tanks were constructed to collect rainwater.

Rulers and villagers actively participated in building and managing irrigation works.

CHOLA ADMINISTRATION (SUMMARY)

Village and Local Administration

Ur: Peasant villages were known as ur.
Nadu: A group of such villages formed a larger unit called a Nadu.
Functions: Village councils and Nadu handled:
- Justice
- Tax collection
Vellala Caste: Rich peasants from the Vellala caste had significant control over the Nadu.
Chola Supervision: These local units worked under the supervision of the central Chola government.

Titles and Honors

Titles Given: The Chola kings awarded titles such as:
- Muvendavelan – a velan (landholder) who served three kings.
- Araiyar – a chief or respected leader.
These title holders were also given important state responsibilities.

Brahmana Settlements and Sabha

Brahmadeya: Brahmanas received land grants (brahmadeya), leading to many Brahmana villages.
Sabha: Each Brahmana settlement was managed by a sabha (assembly of Brahmana landowners).
Efficient Administration: These sabhas were well-organized and efficient.
Inscriptions: Their decisions were carefully recorded in inscriptions, often on temple walls.

Urban Administration

Trader Associations (Nagaram): In towns, traders’ associations called nagaram also took part in administration.

🗳️ Election System (Uttaramerur Inscriptions)

Elections in Sabhas:

Sabhas had separate committees for managing:
- Irrigation
- Gardens
- Temples

Kudavolai System:

Names of eligible members were written on palm-leaf tickets.
These were placed in a pot.
A young boy picked the names randomly to select committee members.

QUESTION ANSWERS

How did the Cholas become powerful and establish a strong empire?

Answer:
The Cholas rose to power in South India around the 9th century CE. Their rise began when Vijayalaya Chola defeated the Muttaraiyar and captured Thanjavur, laying the foundation of the Chola dynasty. Later rulers like Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I expanded the empire through military conquests in South India, Sri Lanka, and even parts of Southeast Asia.

The Cholas became powerful due to:

A strong and organized administration, with provinces (mandalams), districts (nadus), and village assemblies (ur and sabhas).
Prosperous agriculture, supported by irrigation systems like tanks, canals, and wells, especially in the fertile Kaveri delta.
Well-maintained trade routes and active maritime trade with Southeast Asia and the Arabian world.
The support of rich landowners and Brahmanas, who helped in governance and temple activities.
The building of grand temples (like Brihadeshwara Temple) that served as religious, economic, and social centers.
The use of bronze sculpture, temple art, and inscriptions to display their cultural richness and royal authority.

Their powerful army and navy, combined with clever administration, agricultural success, and cultural patronage, made the Cholas one of the greatest empires in Indian history

2. What were the qualifications necessary to become a member of a committee of the sabha in the Chola Empire?
Answer:
The working of a sabha according to the Uttaramerur inscription is given below:

All those who wish to become members of the sabha should be owners of the land from which land, revenue is collected.
They should have their own homes.
They should be between 35 and 70 years of age.
They should have knowledge of the Vedas.
They should be well-versed in administrative matters and honest in all dealings.
If anyone has been a member of any committee in the last three years, he cannot become a member of another committee.
Anyone who has not submitted his accounts, as well as those of his relatives, cannot contest the elections.

3. How did the Rashtrakutas become powerful?

Answer:

Rashtrakutas became powerful in the following manner:

Rashtrakutas were subordinates to the Chalukyas of Karnataka.
In the mid-eighth century Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief, overthrew his Chalukyan overlord.
He performed a ritual called Hiranya-garbha with the help of Brahmanas.
This ritual was, then, considered to lead the rebirth of the sacrificer as Kshatriya, even if he was not Kshatriya by birth.

4. What did the new dynasties do to gain acceptance?

The new dynasties first gained power and wealth, and then worked to gain social and political acceptance. They gave themselves grand titles like maha-samanta, mahamandaleshvara, maharaja-adhiraja, or tribhuvana-chakravartin to show their authority. They appointed learned Brahmanas to write Prashastis (praise poems) describing them as brave and victorious warriors. To show their strength and win respect, they also built large temples and sponsored religious and cultural activities.

5. What kind of irrigation works were developed in the Tamil region?

Answer: During the fifth or sixth century, the areas near the Kaveri river in Tamil Nadu were opened up for large-scale cultivation. The irrigation works that were developed in the Tamil region led to the development of water channels for agriculture, construction of embankments to prevent floods and digging of wells and tanks for storage of water.

6. What were the activities associated with Chola temples?

Answer:

Chola temples were not only places of worship but also important centres of economic, social, and cultural life. They served as centres of craft production, and many settlements grew around them. The temples were often granted land by rulers and wealthy individuals, and the produce from this land was used to support those working in the temple, such as priests, musicians, dancers, cooks, and other specialists. One of the most important crafts linked to Chola temples was the making of bronze images, especially of gods and goddesses, which are considered among the finest in the world. Some bronze sculptures also depicted devotees, showing the temple's role in both art and devotion.

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