NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS

New Questions and Ideas

Chapter

Terms to recall'

Gana;  

Ganas were small kingdoms where decisions were made in assemblies attended by groups of rulers. These were the earliest forms of republican governments. 

Women, slaves and wage earners could not be a part of the ganas. Gautam Buddha and Mahavira also belonged to such ganas and went on to influence the people of the time.

Each Gana had its own assembly or Sangha, where decisions regarding governance, disputes, and other communal matters were discussed and decided upon.

Sangha, meaning "assembly" or "gathering," referred to the tribal or clan assemblies that existed during the Vedic period and early ancient India. 

The Mahajanapadas were mostly monarchical kingdoms where  kings with absolute powers and a regular army ruled over a defined territory called Janapada or rajya. 

Budhism

Buddhism was founded by Gautama Buddha.

Buddha was born as Prince Siddhartha at Lumbini near Kapilavastu (in present Nepal) in 566 BC.

He was the son of Suddhodhana and Mahamaya. Suddhodhana was the chief (King) of the Sakya clan. Due to this, Buddha was also known as ‘Sakyamuni’.

His mother died either giving birth to him or after seven days. Siddhartha was brought up by his maternal aunt, Prajapati Gautami. This gave him the name ‘Gautama’.

It is said that some scholars had predicted that Sidhartha will either become a King or a spiritual leader. 
In order to stop him from becoming a leader and prevent him from the sorrows of the world, he never allowed Sidhartha to step out of the Palace. He was never allowed to see the sufferings of others. 

Sidhartha was provided with all sorts of training to become the next King. 

He was married to Yashodhara and had a son, Rahula.

One day he thought of visiting his people of the clan. This was his turning point. He came across an old age person, ill person, funeral and a sage. 

He left his home at the age of 29 to become an Buddhism was founded by Gautama Buddha.

The idea of renunciation occurred to the Buddha after he saw four different states of man – sick man, old man, corpse and ascetic (a monk).

Buddha wandered for seven years and at the age of 35 attained enlightenment at Uruvela while meditating under a Peepal tree (Fig Tree/ Ficus Religiosa) on the banks of the river Niranjana. This tree came to be known as ‘Bodhi tree’ and the place became Bodh Gaya (in Bihar).

He gave his first sermon at Sarnath near Varanasi. This event is called Dharmachakra Pravartana/ Dhammachakkappavattana.

He died in 483 BC under a Sal tree in Kushinagar (in UP). This event is called the Mahaparinirvana.

The term ‘Buddha’ means ‘enlightened one’.

Four Noble Truths of Buddhas

1. The world is full of sorrows.

2. Desire is the root cause of all sorrows.

3. Sorrows can be conquered by conquering desires.

4. Desire can be conquered by following the eight-fold paths.

Eightfold Paths 

Right understanding

Right resolve

Right speech

Right action

Right living

Right efforts

Right thought

Right self-concentration

Many ideas of Budha were influenced by and the Vedic thought. It was a time where many Vedic thoughts were spreading to different parts of Indian Subcontinent.  Budha had even tried to correct the religious ideas depicted in Vedas.

Sacred Text: Tripitaka

Vedas:

•  The Vedas are ancient sacred texts of Hinduism, composed in Sanskrit between 1500 and 500 BCE. 
• They are considered the foundational scriptures of Hinduism and contain a wide range of knowledge, including hymns, rituals, philosophy, and guidance on social and religious practices.
• Their authorship is traditionally attributed to rishis (sages) who were believed to have received these texts through divine revelation or insight. The Vedas are considered to be apauruṣeya, which means "not of human authorship" or "impersonal." This concept suggests that the Vedas are eternal truths revealed to the ancient sages rather than compositions of human origin.

There are four main Vedas:

• Rigveda: Traditionally attributed to the sage Vyasa.
• Samaveda: Attributed to the sage Jaimini.
• Yajurveda: Attributed to the sage Vaishampayana.
• Atharvaveda: Attributed to the sage Atharvan.

The Upanishads

The Upanishads are a collection of ancient religious texts that are part of Hinduism. 

The Vedas are the religious texts which inform the religion of Hinduism. The term veda means “knowledge. 

Because the Upanishads constitute the concluding portions of the Vedas, they are called vedanta.

Upanishad means "sitting down near" means sitting at the feet of a spiritual teacher to receive knowledge.

Upanishads were written a long time ago, around 800-200 BCE, and they teach us about deep and important questions like:

1. Who am I?
2. What is the universe?
3. What is the ultimate truth?

Key Ideas in the Upanishads:

1. Brahman: This is the ultimate reality or the supreme power that is everywhere. Think of it like a powerful energy that exists in everything in the universe.

2. Atman: This is the inner self or soul. The Upanishads teach that Atman is the true essence of a person and is the same as Brahman. So, in a way, we all have a piece of the ultimate reality inside us.

3. Moksha: This is the goal of life according to the Upanishads. It means achieving liberation or freedom from the cycle of birth and death (reincarnation). When we realize that Atman and Brahman are one, we can reach Moksha.

4. Karma: This is the idea that our actions have consequences. Good actions lead to good outcomes, and bad actions lead to bad outcomes, either in this life or the next.

Why Are the Upanishads Important?

The Upanishads teach us to think deeply about life and our place in the universe. They encourage us to look within ourselves to find answers and to live a life of truth and understanding.

Note: 

Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially Brahmins and Rajas.

There is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, who was famous for her learning and participated in debates held in royal courts.

Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya.

Six Schools of Indian Philosophy

There are six schools of Philosophy which accept the Vedic texts and its authority are: Nyaya, Sankhya, Yoga, Vaisheshika, Purva Mimamsa and Uttara Mimamsa. These are called Orthodox Schools of Indian Philosophy. Orthodox schools, originally called Sanatana Dharma, are collectively referred to as Hinduism in modern times.

1. Nyaya Philosophy

Gaining knowledge through the five senses is the sole way of attaining liberation from the cycle of birth and death.

2. Sankhya Philosophy

It emphasizes the attainment of knowledge of self through meditation and concentration.

3. Yoga Philosophy

It is believed that practising Ashtanga Yoga is the way to relieve oneself from past sins in order to make way for liberation.

4. Vaisheshika

The universe is reducible to a finite number of atoms, Brahman being the fundamental force causing consciousness in these atoms.

5. Purva Mimamsa

A human being can attain salvation only by acting in conformity with the principles of Vedas. (Focus on Yajnas and Mantras)

6. Uttara Mimamsa 

The world is unreal and the only reality is Brahman. 

Jainism and its teachings

Mahavira

Jainism is a very ancient religion. As per some traditions, it is as old as the Vedic religion.

The word Jain means "conqueror". 

The Jain tradition has a succession of great teachers or Tirthankaras. 

There were 24 Tirthankaras the last of which was Vardhaman Mahavira. 

These twenty-four teachers were called Tirthankaras-people who had attained all knowledge (Moksha) while living and preached it to the people.

Vardhaman Mahavira (540 – 468 B.C.)

Considered the last Tirthankara. (24 Spiritual Leaders)

He was born at Kundagrama near Vaisali. (Bihar)

His parents were Kshatriyas. Father – Siddhartha (Head of Jnatrika Clan); Mother – Trishala (Sister of Lichchhavi chief Chetaka). (Chetaka’s daughter married Haryanka King Bimbisara).

He was married to Yasoda and had a daughter Anojja or Priyadarsana.

At the age of 30, Vardhaman renounced his home and became a wandering ascetic. 

He practised austerity for 12 years and attained highest spiritual knowledge called Kaivalya(i.e conquered misery and happiness) at the age of 42 years.

He delivered his first sermon at Pava.

A symbol was associated with every Tirthankara and Mahavira’s symbol was a lion.

His missions took him Koshala, Magadha, Mithila, Champa etc.

He passed away at the age of 72 in 468 B.C. at the Pavapuri in Bihar.

Teachings

It mainly aims at the attainment of liberation through:

Right Faith (Samyakdarshana)

Right Knowledge (Samyakjnana)

Right Action (Samyakcharita)

Five Doctrines of Jainism

Ahimsa: Non-injury to living being

Satya: Do not speak a lie

Asteya: Do not steal

Aparigraha: Do not acquire property

Brahmacharya: Practice celibacy

Lead a thought of pure life, pure thought, pure actions and pure aspirations

Sacred Religious Text: Agams or Agam Sutras. 

Budhist Sangha

Sangha was an association of those people who left their homes as a part of their spiritual journey. 

Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives.

They meditated most of the time and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. (Also called Bhikkus or Bhikkunis - which means Renouncer)

Those who joined the sangha included Brahmins, Kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves.

Viharas

Viharas are monasteries or residential places for Buddhist and Jain monks. They serve as places for meditation, study, and communal living.

 The land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king.

The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the monks and nuns.

Many viharas were made in caves. These cave monasteries were carved into rock faces and provided shelter and living spaces for Buddhist and Jain monks. They often included meditation halls, living quarters, and areas for communal activities.

Two Major Sect of Budhism are: Hinayana Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism

Hinayana Budhism

• The followers of Hinayana Buddhism believed in the original teachings of Buddha.
• Prohibited idol or image worship of Buddha.
• Believed Self – discipline and meditation can lead to the salvation of individuals.
• The followers of Hinayana Buddhism used "Pali Language”.
• Strongly preached the concept that “Buddha will never be reborn”.

Mahayana Buddhism

Mahayana is a Sanskrit word which means “Greater vehicle".

Believed that salvation can be attained with the assistance of Buddha and the Bodhisattvas.

Bodhisattvas are those who want to remain in this world to teach and help other people rather than living in complete isolation after the enlightenment. 

Worshipped the images of Buddha in their Chaityas (Temple). 

“Sanskrit Language” was used to propagate the ideals of Mahayana Buddhism.

Firmly believed in the concept of “Rebirth of Buddha”.

List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5 of Bihar region. Were there any similarities?

Sangha of the past was a form of government in Vaishali (Bihar) consisted of many rulers. They performed rituals together. They met frequently in assemblies to take decisions through discussion and debate. Women, slaves and landless agricultural labourers were not  a part of it. 

Buddhist Sangha was an association of people who left their homes to get true knowledge according to Buddha's teaching. They had to lead simple lives. They meditated for most of the time and went to cities and villages to beg for food. To join ,  children, women and slaves had to take the permission of their parents, husbands and masters respectively. 

System of Ashramas

With changing time in and after the Vedic Period, the Brahmins introduced the system of Ashramas, according to which a person goes through four stages in his life i.e. Bramhacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha and Samnyasa.

In Bramhacharya Asharam, man learnt the Vedas and led a simple life. 

 Grihastha Asharam he got married and had a family. 

In Vanaprastha Asharam, he had to live in forests and meditate.

Samnyasa Asharam, he gave up everything and become samnyasin.

The system of ashramas were the different stages of life men had to live. It allowed men to spent some part of their lives in meditation. Women were not allowed to read Vedas and they were bound to follow the ashramas chosen by their husbands. Sangha was an association joined by both men and women. Brahmins were not also asked to beg food. Shudras were not allowed in the system of Ashramas.