1. Major Changes in the 18th Century

Weak Later Mughal Rulers

After the death of Aurangzeb (1707), later Mughal emperors such as Bahadur Shah I, Jahandar Shah, Farrukh Siyar, Muhammad Shah, Ahmad Shah, Alamgir II and Shah Alam II were weak and inefficient. They failed to control the administration and the nobles.

Administrative and Economic Breakdown

Powerful mansabdars and subadars became independent and stopped sending revenue to Delhi. Heavy taxation caused peasant and zamindari revolts. Though peasants produced good harvests, the empire faced economic collapse, and nobles could not maintain their armies.

Court Politics and Noble Rivalries

Mughal nobles were divided into Iranis and Turanis, leading to constant infighting. Emperors became puppets in the hands of nobles, and some were even assassinated or blinded, which weakened royal authority.

Foreign Invasions

Nadir Shah’s invasion in 1739 devastated Delhi and carried away enormous wealth, including the Peacock Throne. Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded India five times between 1748 and 1761, causing further destruction and instability.

Rise of Regional Powers and British Expansion

Due to the decline of central authority, many independent regional kingdoms emerged. By 1765, the British captured large areas of eastern India, marking a major shift in political power.

Later Mughal Emperors (1707–1858)

Bahadur Shah I – 1707 to 1712
Jahandar Shah – 1712 to 1713
Farrukh Siyar – 1713 to 1719
Rafi-ud-Darajat – 1719
Rafi-ud-Daulah (Shah Jahan II) – 1719
Muhammad Shah (Rangeela) – 1719 to 1748
Ahmad Shah Bahadur – 1748 to 1754
Alamgir II – 1754 to 1759
Shah Alam II – 1759 to 1806
Akbar Shah II – 1806 to 1837
Bahadur Shah Zafar (Last Mughal Emperor) – 1837 to 1858

Emergence of New States in the Eighteenth Century

The eighteenth century can be broadly divided into three groups of states based on their origin and nature:

1. States Formed from Old Mughal Provinces

These states were earlier Mughal provinces governed by subadars.
As Mughal power declined, the governors became independent rulers.
They continued Mughal systems of revenue collection and administration.
Examples: Awadh, Bengal, and Hyderabad

2. States that Enjoyed Autonomy as Watan Jagirs

These states had enjoyed considerable independence even during Mughal rule.
Their rulers accepted Mughal authority but managed their regions on their own.
In the eighteenth century, they tried to expand their territories.
Examples: Rajput states such as Amber and Jodhpur

3. States Formed by New Political Groups

These states emerged through resistance to Mughal authority.
They were formed by powerful military and regional groups.
Examples:
- Marathas
- Sikhs
- Jats

Watan Jagirs of the Rajputs

Watan Jagirs: Ancestral land given to a ruler to manage and rule independently, while still accepting the authority of a bigger empire.

The Rajputs of Amber and Jodhpur served the Mughal emperors with loyalty and distinction.
In return, they were allowed to enjoy considerable autonomy in their watan jagirs (their ancestral lands).
The Rajput rulers managed their own administration, army, and revenue in these regions while accepting Mughal suzerainty.
Ajit Singh of Jodhpur and Sawai Raja Jai Singh of Amber held important Mughal provinces such as Gujarat, Malwa, and Agra as subadars.
Sawai Raja Jai Singh founded the city of Jaipur and built famous Jantar Mantar observatories at Jaipur, Delhi, and other places.
The Rajputs strengthened their position by building strong hill forts like Chittorgarh and Mehrangarh, which became centres of power.
From the 1740s, repeated Maratha invasions into Rajasthan put severe pressure on the Rajput states and checked their further expansion.

Emergence of Sikhs

Rise of the Sikhs as a Political Power (Point-wise Notes)

The Sikhs began as a religious community, but in the seventeenth century they emerged as a political and military force.
Guru Gobind Singh played a key role in this transformation.
In 1699, he created the Khalsa to unite the Sikhs and make them strong.
The Khalsa was trained to fight injustice and protect the weak.

After Guru Gobind Singh’s death in 1708, the Sikhs revolted against Mughal rule under Banda Bahadur.
Banda Bahadur:
- Established Sikh administration between the Sutlej and Jamuna rivers
- Declared Sikh sovereignty by striking coins in the names of Sikh Gurus
He was captured in 1715 and executed in 1716 by the Mughals.

After Banda Bahadur’s death, the Sikhs reorganised themselves.
They formed small military groups called jathas, which later developed into misls.
All the misls together formed the Dal Khalsa.
Collective decisions were taken at Amritsar during Baisakhi and Diwali through resolutions called gurmatas.
The Sikhs introduced the rakhi system, under which farmers paid a tax in return for protection.

With strong organisation and unity, the Sikhs successfully resisted:
- Mughal governors
- Afghan invasions led by Ahmad Shah Abdali
In 1765, the Sikhs again struck their own coins, showing independence.
By the late eighteenth century, Sikh power extended from the Indus to the Jamuna rivers.

Finally, Maharaja Ranjit Singh united the different Sikh groups.
In 1799, he established a strong Sikh kingdom with Lahore as its capital.

The Marathas

1. Rise and Expansion of the Maratha Empire

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8MdSo84XJ4M

The Maratha kingdom was established by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj (1630–1680) in the Deccan region.
It arose as a strong regional power in opposition to Mughal rule.
Shivaji received support from powerful warrior families called deshmukhs.
The backbone of the Maratha army consisted of mobile peasant-pastoral groups known as kunbis.
After Shivaji’s death in 1680, effective power passed to the Peshwas (principal ministers).
The Peshwas belonged to a family of Chitpavan Brahmanas.
Poona (Pune) became the capital of the Maratha kingdom.
The Marathas developed a strong military organisation.
They avoided direct attacks on fortified Mughal centres.
They weakened the Mughals by raiding cities and disturbing supply lines.
Between 1720 and 1761, the Maratha Empire expanded rapidly.
Malwa and Gujarat were seized from the Mughals in the 1720s.
By the 1730s, the Maratha king was recognised as overlord of the entire Deccan peninsula.
The Marathas had the right to collect chauth and sardeshmukhi.
In 1737, they raided Delhi.
Their influence spread to Rajasthan, Punjab, Bengal, Orissa, Karnataka, and the Tamil and Telugu regions.
Many regions paid tribute to accept Maratha authority.
Expansion created hostility among other rulers.
The Marathas were defeated in the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) by Ahmad Shah Abdali.

2. Administration, Economy and Importance

The Marathas developed an effective administrative system.
Revenue demands were introduced gradually after conquest.
Local conditions were considered while collecting taxes.
Agriculture was encouraged.
Trade and commerce were revived.
Powerful Maratha chiefs (sardars) emerged, such as:
- Sindhia of Gwalior
- Gaekwad of Baroda
- Bhonsle of Nagpur
- Holkar of Indore
These chiefs used revenue to raise strong armies.
Cities like Ujjain and Indore became prosperous commercial and cultural centres.
New trade routes developed within Maratha-controlled regions.
Silk from Chanderi was traded in Poona.
Burhanpur (M.P.) expanded its trade links to Poona, Nagpur, Lucknow, and Allahabad.
The Maratha Empire weakened Mughal authority in India.
It became the most powerful regional power in the 18th century.
It played a major role in shaping Indian political history before British dominance.

Why did the Peshwas become famous?

After Shivaji and his successors, the Maratha king became weak.
The Peshwa was originally the Prime Minister of the Maratha king.
Slowly, the Peshwas gained more power than the king.
They became the real rulers of the Maratha Empire.

Important Peshwas:

Balaji Vishwanath – Strengthened Maratha power.
Baji Rao I – Expanded the empire to North India.
Under the Peshwas, the Maratha Empire became very powerful.

The Jats

1. Background

The Jats were mainly prosperous agriculturists.
They lived in the regions around Delhi, Agra, and the Yamuna valley.
They rose to power during the late 17th and 18th centuries.
Their rise was linked to the weakening of the Mughal Empire.

2. Rise under Churaman

Churaman was an important early Jat leader.
He united different Jat groups.
By the 1680s, the Jats controlled territories west of Delhi.
They dominated the region between Delhi and Agra.
For some time, they became the virtual custodians of Agra.

3. Rule of Suraj Mal

Suraj Mal (1707–1763) was the most powerful Jat ruler.
Under him, the kingdom of Bharatpur became strong and organised.
Agriculture and trade flourished.
Towns like Panipat and Ballabhgarh became important trading centres.
When Nadir Shah sacked Delhi in 1739, many nobles took refuge in Bharatpur.
Suraj Mal strengthened administration and military power.

4. Jawahir Shah

Son of Suraj Mal.
Maintained an army of about 30,000 troops.
Hired:
- 20,000 Maratha soldiers
- 15,000 Sikh soldiers
Continued to oppose Mughal authority.

5. Military and Political Strength

The Jats consolidated power during Mughal decline.
Controlled strategic regions near Delhi and Agra.
Built a strong regional state in north India.

6. Architecture and Culture

Built the strong Bharatpur Fort in traditional style.
Constructed a beautiful garden palace at Dig.
The architecture combined styles of Amber and Agra.
Buildings were inspired by Mughal royal architecture of Shah Jahan’s time.

7. Importance of the Jats

Emerged as a strong regional power in the 18th century.
Challenged Mughal authority.
Strengthened trade and agriculture.
Established Bharatpur as a powerful kingdom.

1. Which were the major crises faced by the Mughals that led to their fall in 17th Century?

2. How can we divide the eighteenth century based on the emerging power?

3. Which were the major three states founded by the members of the high mobility? How did they rule in each area?

4. What was the watan jagirs of the Rajputs?

5. How did Sikhs emerge as a powerful political organization?

6. Who were Marathas? How did they become a continuous threat for Mughals?

7. Trace the development of Jats as a regional power?

Answers

1.Emperor Aurangzeb completely utilized the military and financial resources of his empire by fighting a long war in the Deccan. Under his successors, the efficiency of the imperial administration broke down.

The authority of the government was declining. The nobles took charge of revenue and military governance. After the governors started consolidating their power over the provinces, the regular remission of revenue from the capital diminished.

Peasant and zamindari rebellions in many parts of northern and western India added to these problems. These revolts were caused by the pressures of mounting taxes.

In the midst of this crisis, Nadir Shah’s invasion in 1739 and invasions of Afghan ruler Ahmed Shah Abdali between 1748-1761, weakened the Mughal empire.

Mughal Empire was further weakened by competition among different groups of nobles. They were divided into two major groups, the Iranis and Turanis.

Through the eighteenth century, the Mughal Empire gradually fragmented into a number of independent, regional states. The states can be divided into three overlapping groups:

States that were old Mughal provinces like Awadh, Bengal and Hyderabad.

States that had enjoyed considerable independence under the Mughals as watan jagirs. These included several Rajput principalities.

The last group included states under the control of Marathas, Sikhs and others like the Jats. These were of different sizes and had seized their independence from the Mughals after a long-drawn armed struggle.

3. The Old Mughal Provinces included the states of Awadh, Bengal and Hyderabad.

Hyderabad state was founded by Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah. The state was constantly engaged in a struggle against the Marathas.

Awadh was founded by Burhan-ul-Mulk Saadat Khan in 1722.

The rich alluvial plains allowed the development of the region.

Bengal was founded by Murshid Quli Khan. He commanded revenue administration of the state. Under Alivardi Khan the state became prosperous.

4. Several Rajput kings had great ties with the Mughals and functioned under them while granting them independence in their Watan Jagirs. hese influential Rajput families claimed the subadari of the rich provinces of Gujarat and Malwa. Raja Ajit Singh of Jodhpur held the governorship of Gujarat, and Sawai Raja Jai Singh of Amber was the governor of Malwa.Sawai Raja Jai Singh founded his new capital at Jaipur and was given the Subadari of Agra in 1722.

5. During the seventeenth century, Sikhs helped in regional state-building in Punjab. Several battles were fought by Guru Gobind Singh against the Rajput and Mughal rulers, both before and after the institution of the Khalsa in 1699. After his death in 1708, the Khalsa rose in revolt against the Mughal authority.

In the eighteenth century, the Sikhs organized themselves into a number of bands called Jathas, and, later on, misls. Their combined forces were known as the grand army (dal khalsa). A system called rakhi was introduced, offering protection to cultivators on the payment of a tax of 20 percent of the produce.

Guru Gobind Singh inspired the Khalsa with the belief that their destiny was to rule (raj karega khalsa). The Khalsa declared their sovereign rule by striking their own coin again in 1765. The Sikh territories in the late eighteenth century extended from the Indus to the Jamuna, but they were divided under different rulers. One of them, Maharaja Ranjit Singh, reunited these groups and established his capital at Lahore in 1799.

6. Shivaji established a powerful kingdom that posed a threat to the Mughals.

Maratha was taken over by a family of Chitpavan Brahmanas after Shivaji’s death.

Pune eventually became the Maratha Kingdom’s capital.

An effective military system was developed by the Marathas, which weakened the Mughal power.

In the 1720s, Malwa and Gujarat were seized by the Marathas from the Mughals. The Marathas took away provinces and they were compelled to pay tribute after the Delhi raid.

The Marathas gained support as a result of the Panipat Chanderi war. Pune, which was the capital of the Maratha Empire, was a market for silk producers.

7. In the late seventeenth and early eighteenth century, the Jats increased their authority. Under Churaman’s direction, they enlarged their lands to the west of Delhi. They had gained dominance over the area between Delhi and Agra, two imperial towns, by the 1680s. They served as the city of Agra’s de facto guardians for a while.

The Jats were skilled farmers, and while they were in power, towns like Panipat and Ballabgarh developed into significant trading hubs. Suraj Mal led the kingdom of Bharatpur to become a powerful state.... Read more at: https://www.studyiq.com/articles/jats-history/

MCQs

The Mughal Empire weakened due to long wars in the
a) North-West
b) Bengal
c) Deccan
d) Punjab
Mughal governors were known as
a) Sardars
b) Subadars
c) Misls
d) Peshwas
The offices of revenue and military administration were called
a) Diwani and Faujdari
b) Jagirdari and Mansabdari
c) Chauth and Sardeshmukhi
d) Ijaradari and Subadari
The invasion of Delhi that severely weakened the Mughal Empire was led by
a) Ahmad Shah Abdali
b) Nadir Shah
c) Banda Bahadur
d) Baji Rao
Ahmad Shah Abdali was the ruler of
a) Iran
b) Afghanistan
c) Punjab
d) Bengal
The two powerful groups among Mughal nobles were
a) Rajputs and Jats
b) Sikhs and Marathas
c) Iranis and Turanis
d) Afghans and Persians
Sawai Raja Jai Singh founded the city of
a) Udaipur
b) Jaipur
c) Jodhpur
d) Bharatpur
The Khalsa was organised into groups called
a) Subas
b) Jathas and Misls
c) Sardars
d) Garhs
The combined Sikh army was known as
a) Dal Khalsa
b) Rakhi
c) Faujdari
d) Subadari
Maharaja Ranjit Singh established his capital at
a) Amritsar
b) Lahore
c) Delhi
d) Sirhind
The Maratha kingdom was founded by
a) Sambhaji
b) Shahu
c) Shivaji
d) Baji Rao
The Peshwas were
a) Military generals
b) Principal ministers
c) Revenue officers
d) Governors
The Maratha capital became
a) Satara
b) Poona
c) Nagpur
d) Indore
Chauth was
a) 10% land revenue
b) 20% land revenue
c) 25% land revenue
d) 50% land revenue
Sardeshmukhi was about
a) 5% revenue
b) 9–10% revenue
c) 15% revenue
d) 25% revenue
The Jat kingdom emerged strongly under
a) Banda Bahadur
b) Suraj Mal
c) Ajit Singh
d) Holkar
Bharatpur was associated with the
a) Rajputs
b) Marathas
c) Sikhs
d) Jats
The Rajputs built many
a) Ports
b) Forts on hilltops
c) Ships
d) Canals
The Sikhs introduced a system called __________ for protection on payment of tax.
a) Rakhi
b) Faujdari
c) Ijaradari
d) Subadari
The Marathas expanded beyond the Deccan into
a) Only South India
b) Only Bengal
c) North, East and South India
d) Only Punjab

Fill in the Blanks (8)

The Mughal governors were called __________.
Nadir Shah plundered the city of __________.
The two powerful factions among Mughal nobles were __________ and __________.
The Sikh combined army was known as the __________.
The Maratha principal minister was called the __________.
The Marathas collected 25% revenue known as __________.
The Jat kingdom became powerful under __________.
The Sikh system of protection on payment of tax was called __________.

ANSWERS

c) Deccan
b) Subadars
a) Diwani and Faujdari
b) Nadir Shah
b) Afghanistan
c) Iranis and Turanis
b) Jaipur
b) Jathas and Misls
a) Dal Khalsa
b) Lahore
c) Shivaji
b) Principal ministers
b) Poona
c) 25% land revenue
b) 9–10% revenue
b) Suraj Mal
d) Jats
b) Forts on hilltops
a) Rakhi
c) North, East and South India

FIB

Subadars
Delhi
Iranis and Turanis
Dal Khalsa
Peshwa
Chauth
Suraj Mal
Rakhi

1. Why did the Mughal Empire decline in the eighteenth century?

The Mughal Empire declined due to continuous wars, especially in the Deccan, which exhausted its military and financial resources. After Aurangzeb, weak rulers failed to control powerful nobles and governors. Peasant and zamindari rebellions further weakened the empire. Invasions by Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali drained wealth and prestige. Gradually, provincial governors and regional leaders became independent, reducing Mughal authority.

2. How did Nadir Shah’s invasion affect the Mughal Empire?

Nadir Shah’s invasion badly damaged the Mughal Empire. He plundered Delhi and carried away immense wealth, including the Peacock Throne. The treasury was emptied, and the capital was devastated. This invasion exposed the weakness of the Mughal rulers and reduced their prestige. It also encouraged regional powers to assert independence, further weakening central authority.

3. How were the Sikhs organised in the eighteenth century?

After Guru Gobind Singh’s death, the Sikhs organised themselves into military bands called jathas, later known as misls. Their combined forces formed the Dal Khalsa. They met at Amritsar during important festivals to take collective decisions known as gurmatas. Under leaders like Banda Bahadur and later Ranjit Singh, they established political authority and resisted Mughal and Afghan invasions.

4. How did Maharaja Ranjit Singh strengthen the Sikh state?

Maharaja Ranjit Singh united different Sikh misls and established a strong and centralised state. He made Lahore his capital and built a powerful army. He introduced modern military techniques and maintained good relations with neighbouring powers. His leadership brought stability, expanded territory, and ensured prosperity in Punjab, making the Sikh kingdom a strong regional power.

5. How did the Marathas expand their power?

The Marathas expanded their power through strong military organisation and effective leadership. Under Shivaji and later the Peshwas, they used guerrilla warfare and raided Mughal territories. They collected chauth and sardeshmukhi from conquered areas. Their expansion extended into Rajasthan, Punjab, Bengal and South India. They also developed an efficient administrative system to strengthen their rule.

6. What administrative system did the Marathas develop?

The Marathas introduced a systematic revenue collection method based on chauth and sardeshmukhi. They adjusted revenue demands according to local conditions and encouraged agriculture and trade. After securing control, they allowed local rulers to function under their authority. This administrative system provided financial stability and helped maintain a strong military organisation.

7. How did the Jats establish their kingdom?

The Jats consolidated power under leaders like Churaman and Suraj Mal. They controlled territories around Delhi and Agra and became prosperous agriculturists and traders. Suraj Mal strengthened Bharatpur as a powerful state and built strong forts like Lohagarh. Their organised military and economic strength enabled them to challenge Mughal authority effectively.

8. How did regional powers weaken Mughal authority?

Regional powers such as the Sikhs, Marathas, Rajputs and Jats took advantage of Mughal weakness. Governors became independent, stopped sending revenue to the centre, and built their own armies. These powers expanded territories and collected taxes independently. Their rise reduced Mughal control over provinces, leading to fragmentation and decline of the empire.

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Class Notes

Eighteenth Century Political Formations